Does the phrase “the night visions” in Daniel 7 refer to Muhammad’s Night Journey?

Azahari Hassim

How do some argue that the phrase “the night visions” in Daniel 7, verse 13 refers to Muhammad’s Night Journey to the seventh heaven to meet God instead of Jesus, whose ascension did not occur at night?

Some argue that the phrase “the night visions” in Daniel 7, verse 13, refers to Muhammad’s Night ( الإسراء والمعراج) rather than Jesus’ ascension based on the following points:

  1. The term “night visions” directly suggests an event that takes place at night. Muhammad’s Night Journey, which is said to have occurred during the night, aligns with this description. In contrast, Jesus’ ascension is generally not described as happening at night in Christian texts.
  2. According to Islamic tradition, during the Isra, Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Jerusalem and then ascended through the heavens in the Mi’raj. He is described as having profound spiritual experiences, meeting past prophets, and ultimately coming into the presence of God.

In Daniel 7, verses 13 to 14, “one like a son of man” is seen coming with the clouds of heaven and approaching the “Ancient of Days” (interpreted by scholars as God). This imagery of traveling through the heavens and meeting a divine figure has parallels with Muhammad’s Night Journey.

  1. The mention of the “clouds of heaven” could be metaphorically linked to the ethereal and divine nature of Muhammad’s ascent through the heavens, which is a central element in the Night Journey narrative.
  2. Some Muslim scholars see Daniel’s vision as prophetic, foretelling not just events relevant to Jewish history but also later significant religious events. They interpret the “one like a son of man” as a reference to a future prophet who would establish a new era, which Muhammad is believed to have done in Islam.
  3. In the vision, the figure receives authority, glory, and sovereign power, and all nations serve him. Supporters of this interpretation argue that Muhammad’s establishment of Islam fits this prophecy as he united tribes and established a widespread religious and political community.

While these arguments are compelling within an Islamic interpretive framework, this interpretation is not widely accepted in Christian and Jewish traditions.

However, it’s important to note that these interpretations are not mainstream and are often viewed within the context of interfaith dialogue or polemics.

Traditional Jewish and Christian interpretations generally identify the “one like a son of man” as a messianic figure, often associated with Jesus in Christian theology, while in Jewish thought, it can be seen as a representation of Israel or the Messiah.

John Esposito:

“The Night Journey is a central event in the life of Muhammad, the founding prophet of Islam. It marks the moment when Muhammad is spiritually exalted and shown the vastness of God’s universe.”

The Prophecy of Daniel: Constantine the Great and Muhammad the Prophet

Some believe that Daniel 7, verse 25 alludes to Constantine the Great, who presided over the council of Nicaea, while Daniel 7, verse 13, points to Muhammad’s Night Journey. How is this argument explained?

This is a very controversial argument that is not widely accepted by most biblical scholars and Christians, who believe that Daniel 7, verse 25, and Daniel 7, verse 13, refer to the Antichrist and the Messiah, respectively. However, some people who support this argument explain it in the following way:
They claim that Constantine the Great, who was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and who convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, was the little horn of Daniel 7, verse 25, who spoke pompous words against the Most High and tried to change the times and the laws.

They argue that Constantine corrupted the original teachings of Jesus and imposed his own doctrines and creeds on the Christian church, such as the doctrine of the Trinity, the observance of Sunday instead of Saturday as the Sabbath, and the celebration of Easter instead of Passover.

They also accuse Constantine of persecuting and oppressing those who did not conform to his version of Christianity, such as the followers of Arianism, who denied the divinity of Jesus.
Arianism sparked significant debates within the Church, particularly during the early Ecumenical Councils. The First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD condemned Arianism, affirming the doctrine of the Trinity and the full divinity of Christ. The Nicene Creed established the belief that the Son is “begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father.”

Islamic scholars claim that Muhammad, who was the prophet of Islam and who claimed to have a miraculous Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and then to heaven in 621 AD, was the Son of Man of Daniel 7, verse 13, who came with the clouds of heaven and was given dominion, glory, and a kingdom by the Ancient of Days, that is God.

The term “night visions” directly suggests an event that takes place at night. Muhammad’s Night Journey, which is said to have occurred during the night, aligns with this description. In contrast, Jesus’ ascension is generally not described as happening at night in Christian texts.

They argue that Muhammad was a true prophet of God who restored the pure monotheism that was lost by Constantine and his followers. They also assert that Muhammad’s kingdom is an everlasting kingdom that will never be destroyed, and that all nations and peoples of every language will serve him or submit to his law.
In summary, these are a few points made by Islamic scholars to back the notion that Daniel 7, verse 25, and 7, verse 13, refer to Constantine as the little horn who established the Trinity at the Council of Nicea, and Muhammad as the Son of Man who encountered God on his Night Journey to the seventh heaven.

This is the rock, in the Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem, from where Muhammad is said to have begun his ascension to heaven on al-Buraq.

The Night Journey and Ascension to Heaven


Laylat al-Isra wal Miraj is Arabic for the night of the journey and ascension to heaven, an event that Muslims believe occurred on the 27th of Rajab, the seventh month of the Islamic calendar, in the tenth year of hijrah. It is said that having lost his wife Khadijah, and suffered in the town of Taif in the same year, Muhammad was consoled and strengthened in his mission by this timely miracle. 

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad spent the evening with his family and then went to visit the Kaabah, where he fell asleep in the hijr Ismail. He was woken by the Archangel Jibril, who led him to where a white winged beast named al-Buraq stood. He mounted the beast and they sped toward Madinah and Jerusalem. There, according to hadith, Muhammad led all the previous prophets in prayer at the site of the farthest mosque, al-Masjid al-Aqsa. 

He was offered two cups of drink – wine and milk- but chose to drink the milk. Jibril approved of his choice, confirming that wine was prohibited. Finally, it is told, al-Buraq flew him up to heaven from the site of a rock, now the Dome of the Rock Mosque.

Muhammad met all the prophets again, but they were now in their heavenly forms. He went as far as the ‘lote tree of the uttermost end’, mentioned in the Quran (53:14), beyond which no one has ventured. 

God’s divine light descended on the tree, and unlike Moses, Muhammad was able to gaze at it. Muslims believe that God instituted the five daily prayers here, first as 50, but finally reducing them to five. Muhammad claimed that he revealed only a part of what he and Allah discussed that night, and even that only over time.

While returning to Makkah, Muhammad saw trading caravans, which he later described to his companions. The caravans arrived just when he predicted, exhibiting all the details that he had described. Like the Night of Power, this night is marked by Muslims with devotion, prayers and shared meals.

What is Bart Ehrman’s perspective on the term “son of man” as utilized by Jesus in the gospel?

Bart Ehrman, a prominent New Testament scholar, has a nuanced perspective on the term “Son of Man” as used by Jesus in the Gospels. His views can be summarized as follows:

1. Different Referents:

Ehrman argues that when Jesus used the term “Son of Man,” he was often referring to someone other than himself. Specifically, Ehrman believes that Jesus was speaking about a future cosmic judge who would come from heaven to judge the earth, a figure distinct from Jesus himself.

2. Apocalyptic Context:

   Ehrman situates Jesus’ use of “Son of Man” within an apocalyptic framework. He suggests that Jesus anticipated the imminent arrival of God’s kingdom, where this “Son of Man” would play a critical role in the final judgment and the establishment of a utopian order.

3. Metaphorical and Literal Uses:

 While some scholars argue that “Son of Man” could be a self-referential term used metaphorically by Jesus, Ehrman maintains that many instances in the Gospels indicate a literal expectation of a future divine figure. This figure, coming with divine authority, would execute judgment and bring about the end times.

4. Post-Resurrection Identification:

According to Ehrman, after Jesus’ resurrection, his disciples began to identify him as the “Son of Man” he had prophesied about. They believed that Jesus, having ascended to heaven, would return as this divine judge.

5. Scholarly Debate:

  Ehrman’s view is not universally accepted. Many scholars believe that Jesus did refer to himself as the “Son of Man,” interpreting it as a self-designation. However, Ehrman’s interpretation is considered mainstream and is supported by his extensive work on the historical Jesus and early Christian writings.

Conclusion

Bart Ehrman’s perspective on the term “Son of Man” highlights a complex interplay between Jesus’ self-understanding and the apocalyptic expectations of his time. Ehrman posits that Jesus used the term to refer to a future divine judge rather than himself, a view that has sparked considerable scholarly debate. This interpretation underscores the diversity of early Christian thought and the evolving understanding of Jesus’ identity among his followers.

Contents
Home

A Comparative Analysis of the Gospel of Paul and the Teachings of Jesus

Azahari Hassim

Some believe that the gospel of Paul is at odds with the teaching of Jesus. How is this argument articulated?

This is a complex and controversial topic that has been debated by scholars and theologians for centuries. There is no definitive answer, but some of the main arguments are:

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of grace and justification by faith contradicts Jesus’ gospel of the kingdom of God and obedience to the law. They claim that Paul distorted or ignored the teachings of Jesus, and introduced new doctrines that were not in line with the original message of Jesus and his Jewish followers.

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of Christ’s death and resurrection as the core of salvation history differs from Jesus’ gospel of God’s reign as the fulfillment of Israel’s hopes. They argue that Paul focused more on the person and work of Jesus, while Jesus focused more on the will and action of God.

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of inclusion of the Gentiles and freedom from the law opposes Jesus’ gospel of Israel’s restoration and observance of the law. They assert that Paul compromised or abandoned the Jewish identity and heritage of Jesus and his followers, and created a new religion that was detached from its Jewish roots.

These are some of the main ways that some people argue that the gospel of Paul is at odds with the teaching of Jesus. However, there are also many others who defend the harmony and continuity between Paul and Jesus, and who seek to reconcile their apparent differences by considering their historical, cultural, and theological contexts. Ultimately, this is a matter of interpretation and faith, and one that requires careful study and respectful dialogue.

Karen Armstrong:

“Paul’s teaching was quite different from that of Jesus. Whereas Jesus preached about the Kingdom of God, Paul’s gospel was about Jesus himself. Paul, therefore, can be seen as the second founder of Christianity.”


Christian Zionism is a belief among some Christians that the return of the Jewish people to the Holy Land and the establishment of the State of Israel is in accordance with biblical prophecy. This belief is often based on interpretations of the Bible that suggest a special role for the Jewish people in God’s plan and the importance of the land of Israel in biblical history.
Christian Zionists typically support the State of Israel and its policies, viewing Israel as a fulfillment of biblical prophecy and as a key ally in the Middle East. They often advocate for the protection of Israel and its right to exist as a Jewish state.
Christian Zionism has been a significant influence in shaping attitudes towards Israel and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, particularly in the United States. Critics of Christian Zionism argue that it can sometimes lead to uncritical support for Israeli government policies and contribute to tensions in the region.
Overall, Christian Zionism is a complex and multifaceted belief system that intersects religion, politics, and geopolitics in the context of the Middle East.

Jesus and Paul on Zionism: Exploring Apparent Contradictions

Does Jesus contradict Paul regarding Zionism?

Jesus says in Matthew 8, verses 11 to 12:

I tell you that many people from the east and the west (referring to Gentiles) will come and join Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven for a feast.

“But the citizens of the kingdom (referring to the Jewish nation) will be cast out into darkness, where there will be crying and grinding of teeth.”

Some believe many modern Christians support the Zionist ideology because of Paul’s statement in Romans 11 verse 28, which contradicts the statement of Jesus in Matthew 8 verse 12. How is this interpretation explained?

The interpretation that many modern Christians support Zionist ideology based on Paul’s statement in Romans 11 verse 28, despite the apparent contradiction with Jesus’ statement in Matthew 8 verse 12, is a viewpoint held by some proponents of Christian Zionism. Here is how this interpretation is explained:

In Romans 11 verse 28, Paul writes,

“As regards the gospel, they (the Jews) are enemies for your sake. But as regards election, they are beloved for the sake of their forefathers.”

Christian Zionists argue that this verse indicates that, despite the rejection of Jesus by some Jews, God’s covenantal love for the Jewish people and His promises to them are irrevocable.

They interpret this verse as a testament to the ongoing significance of the Jewish people in God’s plan and the fulfillment of His promises to Israel. Christian Zionists believe that the establishment of the modern state of Israel is a manifestation of God’s faithfulness to His covenant with the Jewish people.

Regarding the apparent contradiction with Jesus’ statement in Matthew 8 verse 12, Christian Zionists argue that Jesus’ words were specific to a particular context and time. They contend that Jesus was addressing the religious leaders of His day who rejected Him, rather than making a sweeping statement about the entire Jewish people. They maintain that Paul’s teachings in Romans 11 provide a broader perspective on God’s enduring love for the Jewish people.

It is important to note that not all Christians interpret these verses in the same way, and there are varying theological perspectives on the relationship between Christianity and Zionism. These interpretations are subject to debate and can differ among individuals and Christian denominations.

Athens was one of the strategic targets in Paul’s mission. The market-place in Athens was overlooked by the Acropolis (background left) and Areopagus (background right), from which the Court where Paul argued took its name.

PAUL

Michael A. Smith

Paul was bom into a Jewish family in Tarsus, where his parents were Roman citizens. He was a strict Pharisee, and even as a young man was outstanding in his orthodox beliefs and in his hatred of Christians. He was present at the stoning of Stephen, and was commissioned by the High Priest to arrest Christians at Damascus. Paul was converted through a vision of the risen Christ on his way to Damascus. 

Temporarily blinded, he was befriended by a Christian called Ananias, and when cured he began to preach Christ in Damascus. However, attempts were made against his life, and he had to escape by being lowered down the city wall in a basket. After a spell in Arabia, Paul may have returned to Damascus, but later came to Jerusalem, where he was befriended by Barnabas and introduced to Peter. Further Jewish threats against his life forced him to flee again, and he returned to Tarsus. 

There followed a period of roughly ten years about which little is known; but Paul must have been active in Christian work, for when the Gentile mission began to flourish at Antioch, Barnabas summoned him from Tarsus to join in the work. Paul visited Jerusalem again, taking famine-relief funds, and discussed the Gentile mission with Peter. Then Paul began the evangelistic work which made him the most outstanding Christian missionary of the first century. 

He went with Barnabas and John Mark to Cyprus and Central Asia Minor, founding a number of churches. On his return he had a violent disagreement with Peter at Antioch about how far Gentiles had to accept Jewish customs when they became Christians. However, this question was settled soon after at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).

Paul now set out again, this time with Silas, and they travelled through Asia Minor and crossed into Macedonia. Further successful missionary work followed, especially in Macedonia, Corinth and Ephesus. After another visit to Jerusalem, Paul left with Timothy for further evangelistic work, finally returning to Jerusalem with money collected for the poor Christians there. 

On his arrival, Paul was seized by a Jewish mob and would have been lynched, but for the prompt intervention of the Roman garrison. He was kept in protective custody at Caesarea for two years by the Roman governor Felix, whose successor, Festus, suggested that Paul be tried at Jerusalem. But Paul refused to face such a biassed court and appealed to the Roman Emperor for justice. Paul was taken under escort to Rome, surviving a shipwreck at Malta on the way. 

After two years in Rome (at which point the account in Acts ends) Paul was probably released and spent further time in missionary work before being martyred on a second visit to Rome during Nero’s persecution of AD 64. Paul’s surviving letters are found in the New Testament. 

Galatians was probably written before the Council of Jerusalem. 1and 2 Thessalonians date from Paul’s first journey into Greece; Romans and 1 and 2 Corinthians come from his last spell in Greece before his arrest at Jerusalem. Philippians, Colossians, Ephesians and Philemon were probably written from Rome during Paul’s first imprisonment (although some scholars date them from an earlier imprisonment in Ephesus). 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus were probably written after Paul’s first stay in Rome.

 Paul’s letters were highly valued during his lifetime, and were probably collected together soon after his death. In 1 Clement (written about AD 95) they are already accepted on an equal basis with other Scripture. They were certainly in their present collected form by the time of Marcion (about AD 140). 

Paul’s theology was not well understood in the period immediately after his death. This was partly because the heretic Marcion rejected the Old Testament and much that was Jewish in the New Testament, and made great use of Paul’s writings to support his own ideas. As long as Marcion’s heresy was a threat, mainstream Christian teachers did not stress many of Paul’s distinctive doctrines, such as law and grace. Augustine was the first to give full weight to Paul’s theology.

Contents
Home

Does the prophecy of Daniel refer to Muhammad as the son of man?

Azahari Hassim

Is there a theological correlation between the Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad to Heaven and the prophecy mentioned in Daniel 7:13?

Please provide a detailed explanation to support this argument.

The argument connecting the Night Journey of the Prophet Muhammad to Heaven with Daniel 7 verse 13 is based on theological interpretations that draw parallels between the two events. Here’s an explanation of this argument:

  1. The Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad ( الإسراء والمعراج): According to Islamic tradition, the Night Journey (الإسراء) and Ascension (المعراج) is a miraculous event in which the Prophet Muhammad was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem and then ascended through the heavens, meeting various prophets and eventually coming into the presence of Allah.
  2. Daniel 7 verse 13 in the Bible: In the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament of the Bible, specifically in Daniel 7 verse 13, there is a prophecy that says: “I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days (that is, God) and was presented before him.” This verse is often interpreted as a reference to a messianic figure.

The argument connecting these two events revolves around the idea that both the Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad and the vision in Daniel 7 verse 13 involve a figure coming into the presence of God. Some scholars, particularly in comparative religion and interfaith dialogue, suggest that there are thematic similarities between these events:

Divine Revelation: In both situations, there is a significant meeting with the divine, as Prophet Muhammad ascends to the highest levels of heaven, and the individual in Daniel 7 verse 13 is brought before the “Ancient of Days,” a divine being.

Prophetic Roles: The figure in Daniel 7 verse 13 is often associated with a messianic or prophetic role. Similarly, Prophet Muhammad is considered the final prophet in Islam, and his Night Journey is seen as a confirmation of his prophethood.

It’s important to note that this argument is primarily a matter of theological interpretation and interfaith dialogue. Different scholars and religious traditions may have varying perspectives on the significance and connections between these events.

Al-Suyuti (Islamic scholar and historian):

“Daniel, peace be upon him, was among the prophets sent to the Children of Israel. He was blessed with wisdom and the ability to interpret dreams. He foretold the coming of several empires and their eventual downfall. His body was discovered during the conquest of Persia, and the Muslims respected it qand reburied it to protect it from being desecrated.”

What is the perspective of Islam on the biblical figure of Daniel?

In Islam, the perspective on the biblical figure of Daniel is quite respectful, though Daniel is not mentioned explicitly in the Quran. Despite this absence, Daniel is recognized and revered in Islamic tradition and literature, primarily through historical narratives and the Hadith (sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad).

Reverence in Islamic Tradition:

  1. Historical Narratives: Daniel is considered a prophet by some Muslim scholars, though this is not universally agreed upon since he is not mentioned in the Quran. His story and qualities are often cited in Islamic works, drawing from Jewish and Christian traditions. Islamic texts sometimes include stories about Daniel, portraying him as a wise and devout man. These narratives often focus on his ability to interpret dreams, his steadfast faith, and his survival in the den of lions—mirroring the biblical account.
  2. Literature and Folklore: Daniel appears in various Islamic texts and is particularly noted for his prophetic wisdom and piety. In some Islamic stories, he is credited with great wisdom and miraculous abilities, similar to those found in the Book of Daniel in the Bible. For instance, he is sometimes associated with the town of Susa in Iran, where a shrine said to be his tomb is located.
  3. Interpretations and Beliefs: In Islamic eschatology, Daniel is sometimes mentioned in discussions about the end times, although these references are more cultural and based on hadith literature rather than the Quran. His ability to interpret dreams and visions is often highlighted in Islamic teachings, paralleling the role he plays in the biblical narratives.

In summary, while Daniel is not a Quranic figure, his legacy as a wise and devout servant of God is acknowledged and respected within Islamic tradition, where he is often considered a prophet and a righteous man. His stories are used to impart moral lessons and to exemplify a life of faith and integrity.

How does Bart Ehrman interpret the term “son of man” as used by Jesus in the gospel?

Here is a summary of Bart Ehrman’s interpretation of Jesus’ use of the term “son of man” in the gospels:

1. Ehrman believes that when Jesus used the phrase “son of man”, he was referring to a future apocalyptic figure who would come as the cosmic judge at the end of time, not to himself. In other words, Jesus did not see himself as the “son of man”.

2. According to Ehrman, Jesus expected and taught that this “son of man”, a heavenly being sent by God, perhaps a powerful angel like Michael, would arrive imminently to judge the earth and establish God’s kingdom.

3. Ehrman argues this cosmic “son of man” figure derives from passages like Daniel 7:13-14, where he is portrayed as an exalted, divine-like figure subordinate only to God himself. However, Ehrman maintains this figure was still understood to be human, not divine, since that is what “son of man” means.

4. In Ehrman’s view, it was only after Jesus’ death that his disciples came to believe that Jesus himself was the “son of man” he had predicted would come. The gospels then place this title on Jesus’ own lips as a self-designation.

5. While Ehrman acknowledges that Paul seems to equate Jesus with the Danielic “son of man” in 1 Thessalonians, he argues these are likely later additions representing more developed Christology, not Jesus’ original teachings.

In summary, Ehrman’s controversial perspective is that Jesus did not use “son of man” as a title for himself, but rather to refer to a separate apocalyptic figure. This view contradicts the common interpretation that Jesus was claiming that title and identity directly. However, Ehrman’s arguments have generated significant scholarly debate and pushback from those who maintain Jesus did indeed see himself as the “son of man”.

Contents
Home

Muhammad, Torah and Hebrew Prophets

Azahari Hassim

Does Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21, verse 18, predate the Torah given to Moses?

Yes, Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21, verse 18, predates the Torah as given to Moses. The Book of Genesis, which includes the story of Hagar, is considered part of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible) and traditionally attributed to Moses. 

However, the events described in Genesis, including Hagar’s encounter with God and the prophecy concerning her son Ishmael, are believed to have occurred long before the time of Moses, around the patriarchal period.

The narrative in Genesis 21 describes Hagar and Ishmael in the context of Abraham’s family and is thus seen as part of the pre-Mosaic tradition. The Torah, or Pentateuch, as a compilation and codification, is generally understood to have been formalized during the time of Moses, which occurs much later in the biblical timeline. 

Therefore, the events and prophecies in Genesis can be considered as part of the earlier history before the giving of the law to Moses.

Holy Quran 7:144

قَالَ يَٰمُوسَىٰٓ إِنِّى ٱصْطَفَيْتُكَ عَلَى ٱلنَّاسِ بِرِسَٰلَٰتِى وَبِكَلَٰمِى فَخُذْ مَآ ءَاتَيْتُكَ وَكُن مِّنَ ٱلشَّٰكِرِينَ

[Allah] said, “O Moses, I have chosen you over the people with My messages and My words [to you]. So take what I have given you and be among the grateful.”

What is the argument put forth by those who support the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, in contrast to Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah? Consequently, Muhammad, in contrast to Hebrew prophets such as Jesus, is not bound by the laws of the Torah.

Supporters of the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, argue that this connection sets Muhammad apart from Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah. Here is a detailed explanation of their argument:

1. Pre-Torah Origins of Hagar’s Prophecy

   Proponents argue that Hagar’s prophecy, as mentioned in Genesis 21, verse 18, predates the Torah given to Moses. This prophecy concerns Hagar’s son, Ishmael, who is promised to become a great nation. This predates the formalization of the Torah, which is traditionally attributed to Moses and his time.

2. Reiteration and Fulfillment in Islamic Rituals

The Torah reiterates Hagar’s prophecy, but its fulfillment is seen in Islamic practices, particularly the Hajj pilgrimage. The Hajj, which involves rituals connected to Hagar and Ishmael, is viewed as a direct link to their legacy. This pilgrimage is a central practice in Islam, signifying the prophecy’s fulfillment and its importance in Islamic tradition.

3. Marginalization by Ancient Israelite Scribes

   It is suggested that ancient Israelite scribes attempted to downplay the significance of Hagar and Ishmael due to theological and political reasons. This marginalization aimed to elevate the prominence of Isaac and the Israelite lineage over Ishmael. The argument posits that the biblical narrative was shaped in a way that selectively emphasized aspects favorable to the Israelite lineage.

           Contrast with Hebrew Prophets

1. Association with the Torah

   Hebrew prophets are closely linked to the Torah, which is seen as the foundation of their prophetic authority. The Torah, given to Moses, contains the laws and ethical teachings that Hebrew prophets were tasked with interpreting and enforcing. This connection establishes a continuous line of prophetic tradition rooted in the Mosaic covenant.

2. Muhammad’s Independent Prophetic Lineage

   In contrast, Muhammad’s prophethood is associated with the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, rather than the Mosaic covenant. This distinction is significant in Islamic theology, which views Muhammad’s message as a continuation and fulfillment of the Abrahamic faith, independent of the Mosaic laws. This perspective underscores the universality of Muhammad’s revelation, intended for all humanity, rather than being confined to the specific legal and ritual practices of the Jewish people.

                 Theological Implications

1. Universal Prophetic Tradition

   By associating Muhammad with a prophecy that predates the Torah, supporters argue that prophetic messages have been universal and ongoing throughout human history. This places Islam within a broader, inclusive prophetic tradition that transcends Jewish ethnic and religious boundaries. It emphasizes the continuity of divine guidance from the time of Abraham through to Muhammad.

2. Distinct Covenants

   The argument also highlights the existence of distinct covenants in the Abrahamic religions. While the Hebrew prophets operate under the covenant of Moses and the Sinai revelation, Muhammad is seen as part of the covenant given to Abraham and Ishmael. This theological distinction reinforces the idea that different prophetic traditions are validated by separate covenants within the broader framework of Abrahamic faiths.

In summary, the argument linking Muhammad’s prophethood to Hagar’s prophecy emphasizes its pre-Torah origins, fulfillment in Islamic Hajj, and the marginalization of Hagar’s significance by ancient Israelite scribes. This perspective contrasts Muhammad’s universal and independent prophetic lineage with the Hebrew prophets’ association with the Torah, highlighting distinct covenants and a broader prophetic tradition.

What distinguishes the prophethood of Moses from that of the prophets who came after him?

The prophethood of Moses is distinguished from that of subsequent prophets in several significant ways, particularly regarding his role, experiences, and the nature of the revelations he received. Here are some key distinctions:

  1. Direct Encounter with God: Moses is unique in that he had direct, face-to-face encounters with God (Exodus 33:11). This level of intimacy and direct communication is described as unparalleled, with other prophets often receiving messages through visions, dreams, or angels rather than direct interaction.
  2. The Revelation of the Torah: Moses is credited with receiving the entirety of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible), which includes laws, commandments, and instructions essential for the covenant community of Israel. This comprehensive legal and ethical code set a foundational framework for Jewish law and identity. Subsequent prophets, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, often reaffirmed, interpreted, or expanded upon the existing laws but did not receive a new foundational law like Moses did.
  3. Covenant Mediator: Moses acted as a mediator of the covenant between God and the Israelites. He led the Israelites out of Egypt, guided them through the wilderness, and established the covenant at Sinai. His role as a leader and lawgiver, along with his intercessory prayers on behalf of the people, underscores his unique relationship as the primary figure in establishing Israel’s identity as a nation under God.
  4. Prophecies and Predictions: While many prophets delivered messages of warning, hope, and future events, Moses’ prophecies included significant long-term predictions, such as the future of Israel in the Promised Land, blessings and curses based on obedience to God’s law (as seen in Deuteronomy), and the coming of a prophet like himself, which later prophetic traditions and the New Testament interpret as a foretelling of the coming Messiah.
  5. Significance in Religious Tradition: Moses occupies a central and revered role in Judaism, often regarded as the greatest of all prophets. His story is foundational to Jewish identity and religious life, and he is frequently referenced in both Jewish and Christian traditions as a touchstone for prophetic authority. In Islam, Moses (Musa) is also revered as a great prophet, but the distinctions in religious functions and teachings remain significant.
  6. Legacy and Tradition: The events of Moses’s life—such as the Exodus, the plagues in Egypt, and the giving of the Ten Commandments—are pivotal events that shape the narrative of the Hebrew Bible. His legacy establishes parameters for prophetic authority, and he is often considered a model for later prophets in terms of leadership, covenant fidelity, and obedience to God’s commands.

In summary, Moses’s unique experiences, the foundational revelation of the Torah through him, his mediating role in establishing the covenant, and the lasting impact of his life and teachings all contribute to what distinguishes his prophethood from those who followed him. While all prophets play essential roles in their communities, Moses stands out as a singular figure in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions.

Contents
Home

The end of the Jews’ role as a kingdom of priests associated with ritual sacrifices

Azahari Hassim

It is believe that the Kingdom of God, as announced by Jesus in Matthew 8, verse 11 to 12, signifies the end of the Jews’ role as a kingdom of priests associated with ritual sacrifices. This argument can be explained from an Islamic perspective as follows:

In Islam, the completion of prophethood through Muhammad, the final messenger, is a key belief. Therefore, the Islamic view aligns with the notion that Jesus proclamation of the kingdom of God effectively ended the Jewish role as a kingdom of priests tied to ritual sacrifices.

This is seen as part of a continuous prophetic tradition that calls for righteous living and submission to God’s will.

In Islamic theology, the Kingdom of God is perceived as God’s sovereign rule over all creation. The invitation to enter this kingdom is viewed as a call to submit to God’s will and to live according to His guidance.

Islam respects the historical role of the Children of Israel as a chosen community tasked with responsibilities and blessings, including their past as a kingdom of priests dedicated to worshiping God.

Thus, from an Islamic perspective, Jesus’ announcement about the Kingdom of God is interpreted as both a revocation of the Jews’ priestly role and a continuation of the prophetic message, emphasizing the importance of faith, righteousness, and devotion to God.”

Isra

The first part of the Prophet’s Night Journey, in which he traveled on the winged steed Buraq to the “furthest mosque,” identified with al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

From an Islamic viewpoint, Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem symbolizes the end of Judaism as a sacrificial religion, as it is linked to the former Jewish temple.

The Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad to Jerusalem holds significant importance in Islamic belief as it marks a turning point in the relationship between Islam and Judaism.

In Islamic perspective, this event signifies the end of Judaism as a sacrificial religion because it is believed that during his journey, Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven and received instructions for the Muslim community, including the commandment to pray five times a day.

The connection to the Jewish temple in Jerusalem is also significant as it symbolizes the shift from Jewish practices to Islamic teachings. By visiting this sacred site, Prophet Muhammad demonstrated that Islam was now the true religion and successor to Judaism.

This event serves as a reminder of the historical ties between these two Abrahamic faiths while also emphasizing the unique beliefs and practices of Islam.

Overall, Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem represents a pivotal moment in Islamic history where Judaism’s role as a sacrificial religion came to an end, paving the way for Islam to emerge as a distinct and influential faith.

Miraj

The second part of Prophet Muhammad’s Night Journey, when he ascended from Jerusalem to the heavens.

The Dome of the Rock (known also as Qubbat al-Sakhrah in Arabic) is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. This shrine dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest extant Islamic building in the world. The Dome of the Rock is sacred not only to Muslims, but also to Jews and Christians.

Could it be argued that Muhammad is the “son of man” and that Islam symbolizes the “kingdom of God” as suggested in Surah 4 verse 54 and Surah 2 verse 89 of the Quran? It is worth noting that Islam arose following the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire.

The idea that Muhammad might be identified with the “son of man” from the Book of Daniel and that Islam represents the “kingdom of God” is an interpretation that has been proposed by some, particularly within Islamic thought, but it’s essential to understand the contexts of both religious traditions.

Quranic Verses: 

Surah 4 verse 54 (An-Nisa) reads: “Or do they envy people for what Allah has given them of His bounty? But we had already given the family of Abraham the Scripture and wisdom and conferred upon them a great kingdom.”

Surah 2 verse 89 (Al-Baqarah) states: “And when there came to them a Book from Allah confirming that which was with them – although before they used to pray for victory against those who disbelieved – but [then] when there came to them that which they recognized, they disbelieved in it; so the curse of Allah will be upon the disbelievers.”

Both verses make reference to the recognition of a divine revelation or guidance that was granted to previous communities and then to the community of Muhammad. The emphasis in these verses is on the continuity of prophetic revelation and the recognition (or rejection) of that revelation by its recipients.

Interpretation:  

While the emergence of Islam after the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire is historically accurate, directly equating Muhammad to the “son of man” in Daniel based on these Quranic verses might be a stretch when considering the original contexts and intentions of both the Book of Daniel and the mentioned Surahs. However, like any religious interpretation, views can be diverse, and some might see parallels or symbolic connections.

It’s also important to note that the Quran itself doesn’t explicitly identify Muhammad as the “son of man” from Daniel. Traditional Islamic belief holds that Muhammad is the last prophet in a long line of prophets, including figures like Abraham, Moses, David, and Jesus, and that Islam’s emergence is a continuation and finalization of the monotheistic tradition.

Conclusion:  

While there might be intriguing parallels to explore, it’s essential to approach such interpretations with an understanding of the historical, theological, and textual contexts of both traditions. Directly equating Muhammad with the “son of man” from Daniel based on the Quranic verses would require a broader interpretive framework that takes into account various other factors, historical events, and theological considerations.

At the heart of the Dome of the Rock is a limestone outcrop revered by Muslims as the place from which Muhammad ascended on his mystical journey into heaven. 

Some scholars believe the Night Journey of the Prophet Muhammad to Heaven is theologically related to Daniel 7 verse 13. How is this argument explained?

The argument connecting the Night Journey of the Prophet Muhammad to Heaven with Daniel 7 verse 13 is based on theological interpretations that draw parallels between the two events. Here’s an explanation of this argument:

1. The Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad (Isra and Mi’raj):

According to Islamic tradition, the Night Journey (Isra) and Ascension (Mi’raj) is a miraculous event in which the Prophet Muhammad was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem and then ascended through the heavens, meeting various prophets and eventually coming into the presence of Allah.

2. Daniel 7 verse 13 in the Bible:

In the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament of the Bible, specifically in Daniel 7 verse 13, there is a prophecy that says: “I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days (that is, God)  and was presented before him.” This verse is often interpreted as a reference to a messianic figure.

The argument connecting these two events revolves around the idea that both the Night Journey of Prophet Muhammad and the vision in Daniel 7 verse 13 involve a figure coming into the presence of God. Some scholars, particularly in comparative religion and interfaith dialogue, suggest that there are thematic similarities between these events:

Divine Revelation:

In both cases, there is a profound encounter with the divine, with the Prophet Muhammad ascending to the highest levels of heaven and the figure in Daniel 7 verse 13 being presented before the “Ancient of Days,” a divine entity.

Prophetic Roles:

The figure in Daniel 7 verse 13 is often associated with a messianic or prophetic role. Similarly, Prophet Muhammad is considered the final prophet in Islam, and his Night Journey is seen as a confirmation of his prophethood.

The Night Journey

Muhammad’s famous Night Journey, which took place in about the same period as the Hijra, is briefly mentioned in the Quran: “Glory be to Him who made His servant go by night from the Sacred Temple to the farther Temple whose surroundings We have blessed, that We might show him some of Our signs” (17:1). The Prophet’s biographer Ibn Ishaq and various hadith provide more detail. They describe a miraculous night journey (the Isra in Arabic), when he rode a flying steed named Buraq from Mecca to Jerusalem. Once there, he ascended to heaven (the Miraj), where he met many of the great prophets. He was even granted a veiled vision of God, who commanded the Muslim community to pray 50 times a day. When the Prophet requested a more lenient obligation, the number was lowered to five daily prayers. The story serves to ground the importance of Jerusalem in Islam’s sacred geography, provide a basis for the five daily prayers required of Muslims, and affirm the nature of Muhammad as a spiritual guide.

During the Miraj (ascension to Heaven), Muhammad, on board his mount Buraq, was among the angels, who are shown in this 17th century Persian miniature.
Contents
Home

Hagar’s Legacy: Exploring the Intersection of Biblical Prophecy and Islamic Tradition

Azahari Hassim

Hagar, an Egyptian woman with no power or status, is the first person in Scripture to be visited by an angel and the only person in Scripture to give God a name—El Roi, “the God who sees me.” In the midst of her pain and struggle, Hagar receives God’s blessing and promises.

It is believed that the prophecy of Hagar predated the Torah revealed to the Israelites. The Torah reiterated her prophecy, whose fulfillment is realized in the ritual Hajj of Islam. Some argue that the scribes of ancient Israelites attempted to tone down its importance. How is the argument articulated?

The argument as presented suggests that the prophecy of Hagar, which is believed to have predated the Torah, finds its fulfillment in the Islamic ritual of Hajj, and that the scribes of ancient Israel attempted to diminish its significance. Here’s how this argument is explained:

  1. Pre Torah origins: This argument posits that the prophecy of Hagar and her descendants, including Ishmael, existed prior to the revelation of the Torah to Moses. Supporters of this view often point to the genealogical and historical connections between Hagar and Ishmael and the founding of the Arab people.
  2. Prophecy reiterated in Torah: The claim is made that the Torah, when it was revealed to the Israelites, reiterated and acknowledged the prophecy related to Hagar and Ishmael. This acknowledgment can be found in the biblical narrative where Hagar and Ishmael’s story is mentioned.
  3. Importance of the Hajj ritual: Proponents then assert that the fulfillment of Hagar’s prophecy, as reiterated in the Torah, can be seen in the Islamic ritual of Hajj. They argue that Hajj, which is a pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is seen as a direct link to Hagar and Ishmael and represents the fulfillment of their destiny. This ritual is regarded as a significant practice in Islam and is central to the religious identity of Muslims.
  4. Suppression of Hagar’s significance: The argument continues by suggesting that the scribes of ancient Israel attempted to downplay the importance of Hagar and her descendants, including Ishmael, due to theological and political motivations. It is proposed that, in shaping the biblical narrative, these scribes might have marginalized or selectively emphasized certain aspects to elevate the prominence of Isaac and the Israelite lineage over Ishmael.

It’s important to note that this argument reflects a particular perspective and interpretation. There are different viewpoints on this topic, and scholars hold a wide array of opinions regarding the relationship between biblical narratives, biblical redaction, and the Islamic tradition.

Renita J. Weems (biblical scholar and author):

Hagar’s story is about an African slave woman who hears God, names God, and survives abuse. Her narrative invites us to consider the experiences of those who are often overlooked and undervalued.”

Most Christians are unaware of the Muslim reverence for the Virgin Mary. In 24 of the 34 references to Mary (Maryam) in the Qur’an, she is identified as the mother of Jesus. No other woman is even mentioned by name in the Qur’an. One chapter of the Qur’an (Sura 19) is entitled “Maryam” and narrates events of the Annunciation and Jesus’ birth. In addition, Muslims call Mary Sitti Maryam, with Sitti being a term of endearment because of her privilege to be the mother of Jesus.

Mary and Hagar in Islam: Prominence and Reverence in Tradition and Ritual

In Islam, who is more prominent, Mary, the mother of Jesus, or Hagar, the mother of Ishmael?

In Islam, both Mary, the mother of Jesus, and Hagar, the mother of Ishmael, hold significant and respected positions, but their prominence is contextual and varies in different aspects of Islamic tradition.

  1. Mary in Islam: Mary is highly revered in Islam and is the only woman mentioned by name in the Quran. She has an entire chapter (Surah) named after her, that is Surah Maryam (Chapter 19). She is celebrated for her piety, chastity, and the miraculous birth of Jesus. Maryam is often cited as an example of virtue and is one of the most honored women in Islamic tradition.
  2. Hagar in Islam: Hagar is also a revered figure, especially for her role in the story of Prophet Abraham. Her search for water for her son Ishmael in the desert is commemorated by Muslims during the Hajj pilgrimage in the ritual of Sa’i, where pilgrims walk between the hills of Safa and Marwah. Hagar’s story symbolizes faith, perseverance, and trust in God’s providence.

The prominence of each figure can be contextually determined:

Religiously and Scripturally: Mary has a more detailed narrative in the Quran and is explicitly named, highlighting her unique status.

Culturally and Ritually: Hagar’s legacy is physically re-enacted by millions of Muslims annually during Hajj, giving her a prominent ritualistic role in Islamic practice.

Both figures, however, are deeply respected and are seen as exemplary models of faith and devotion in their own right. Their stories and the lessons derived from them are integral to Islamic teachings.

Hagar worked as a servant for Abraham and his wife Sarah. Sarah was unable to have children, and as was a common practice of the time, Sarah offered her servant, Hagar, to Abraham to be his wife in hopes that she would conceive.

How is Hagar depicted in the Midrash literature?

In the Midrash, Hagar is described as a daughter of Pharaoh who becomes the handmaid of Sarah, Abraham’s wife. The story goes that when Pharaoh encountered the miracles God performed for Sarah to protect her from him, he gave his daughter Hagar to Sarah, hoping that by aligning his family with Abraham’s, he could also benefit from God’s protection. 

The Midrashic account highlights Hagar’s royal origin to emphasize her significant status and the depth of her descent, from princess to servant, and later to the mother of Ishmael, emphasizing themes of divine providence and the interconnected fate of biblical characters.

Hagar in Islamic Tradition

In Islamic tradition, Hagar, known as Hajar in Arabic, holds a significant and revered position. Her story is prominently featured in various Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) and Islamic teachings. Here are some key aspects of what Hadith and Islamic tradition say about Hagar:

  1. Hagar and Ishmael in the Desert:

One of the most well-known stories involving Hagar is her journey to the desert with her infant son Ishmael. According to Hadith, Abraham was commanded by God to leave Hagar and her baby in the barren desert of Mecca. Hagar’s trust in God and her perseverance are highlighted in this story.

A significant Hadith from Sahih Bukhari describes Hagar running between the hills of Safa and Marwah in search of water for her infant son Ishmael. This event is commemorated in the Sa’i ritual, part of the Hajj pilgrimage, where pilgrims re-enact her search for water.

  1. The Well of Zamzam:

Islamic tradition holds that as Hagar searched desperately for water, the angel Jibril (Gabriel) struck the ground, and the well of Zamzam miraculously sprang forth. This well provided water for Hagar and Ishmael, and it remains a significant site in Islam to this day. This story is also recounted in Sahih Bukhari.

  1. Hagar’s Faith and Patience:

Hagar is often praised in Hadith and Islamic literature for her unwavering faith, patience, and devotion. Her story is used to exemplify trust in God’s plan and the importance of perseverance in the face of hardship.

  1. Role in Islamic Rituals:

As mentioned, the Sa’i ritual in Hajj, where pilgrims walk between Safa and Marwah, directly commemorates Hagar’s search for water. This act is a testament to her endurance and faith.

Example Hadith:

Sahih Bukhari 3364:

Narrated by Ibn Abbas: The first lady to use a girdle was the mother of Ishmael. She used a girdle so that she might hide her tracks from Sarah. Abraham brought her and her son Ishmael while she was suckling him, to a place near the Ka’ba under a tree on the spot of Zamzam, at the highest place in the mosque. During those days, there was nobody in Mecca, nor was there any water there. So he made them sit over there and placed near them a leather bag containing some dates, and a small water-skin containing some water, and set out homeward.

Hagar followed him, saying, “O Abraham! Where are you going, leaving us in this valley where there is no person whose company we may enjoy, nor is there anything (to enjoy)?” She repeated that to him many times, but he did not look back at her. Then she asked him, “Has Allah ordered you to do so?”

Abraham said, “Yes.” Hagar said, “Then Allah will not neglect us,” and returned while Abraham proceeded onwards, and on reaching Thaniya where they could not see him, Abraham faced the Ka’ba, and raising both hands, invoked Allah saying the following prayers: “O our Lord! I have made some of my offspring dwell in a valley without cultivation, by Your Sacred House (Ka’ba at Mecca) in order, O our Lord, that they may offer prayer perfectly. So fill some hearts among men with love towards them, and (O Allah) provide them with fruits so that they may give thanks.”

Conclusion:

Hagar’s story in Islamic tradition is one of profound faith, resilience, and trust in God’s providence. Her experiences are integral to several Islamic rituals and continue to inspire Muslims around the world.

Contents
Home

Does the Quran mention Muhammad as the Messiah whom the Jews await?

Azahari Hassim

Does the Quran mention Muhammad as the Messiah whom the Jews await?

In the Quran, Muhammad is not explicitly referred to as the Messiah whom the Jews await. However, there is an indirect mention in Surah 2, verse 89, that can be interpreted in this context.

Surah 2, verse 89, states,

“And when there came to them a Book from Allah confirming that which was with them – although before they used to pray for victory against those who disbelieved – but [then] when there came to them that which they recognized, they disbelieved in it; so the curse of Allah will be upon the disbelievers.”

This verse is believed by some scholars and interpreters to refer to a prophecy mentioned in Jewish scriptures about a future prophet who would come after Moses. According to this interpretation, the Jews were awaiting this promised prophet or Messiah.

Muslims believe that Muhammad is the final prophet sent by Allah and consider him as fulfilling various prophecies mentioned in previous religious texts. Therefore, some Muslims interpret Surah 2, verse 89, as indirectly referring to Muhammad as the awaited Messiah.

It’s important to note that interpretations of religious texts can vary among different scholars and individuals. While some may see a connection between Muhammad and the awaited Messiah based on this verse, others may have different interpretations or understandings.


George Bernard Shaw:

“I have studied him – the wonderful man – and in my opinion far from being an anti-Christ, he must be called the Savior of Humanity.”

Jesus and the Pharisees were known to have conflicting beliefs and teachings during the time of Jesus’ ministry. The Pharisees were a religious sect in Judaism who focused on strict adherence to the Mosaic Law and traditions, while Jesus often challenged their interpretations and practices. This led to many confrontations and debates between Jesus and the Pharisees, as their differing perspectives on faith and righteousness clashed. Ultimately, their interactions played a significant role in shaping the narrative of the New Testament.

Jesus, Muhammad, and the Davidic Messiah

In Matthew 22, verse 45, Jesus posed a question to the Pharisees. How can the Messiah be considered David’s descendant if David himself refers to him as ‘Lord’?

The following is an excerpt from Willmington’s Bible Handbook notes on Matthew 22, verses 42 to 45:

Jesus now asked a question of the Pharisees: They accepted Psalm 110 as a prediction of the Messiah, yet they considered that he would be a merely human descendant of David. If that were the case, asked Jesus, why did David refer to him as “Lord”? Both the deity and humanity of the Messiah are taught clearly in the Old Testament but the leaders could not see it. Jesus had finally silenced his critics once and for all.

Some Islamic scholars believe that, although Jesus was considered a messiah, he never publicly claimed to be the Davidic messiah whom the Jews were expecting. Moreover, it appears that in Matthew 22, verses 42 to 45, Jesus did not emphasize his divinity as most Christian commentators claim, but rather rejected the notion that the Messiah would be a descendant of David.

Islamic scholars argue that Jesus did not refer to himself but to someone other than him, that is Prophet Muhammad who was seated at the right hand of God. Similarly, while Jesus understood himself to be a prophet, he never publicly claimed to be the prophet mentioned in Deuteronomy 18, verse 18. How is this argument explained?

Islamic scholars present a nuanced interpretation of Jesus’ role as the Messiah and his relationship to the prophecies in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. Their arguments often center around specific biblical passages and the broader theological context within Islam.

Jesus as the Messiah and the Davidic Lineage

In Islam, Jesus (Isa) is recognized as the Messiah (Al-Masih), but this title does not carry the same connotations as it does in Christian theology. The Quran refers to Jesus as the Messiah eleven times, emphasizing his role as a prophet and messenger of God rather than a divine figure or a political savior from the line of David. This interpretation aligns with the Islamic view that Jesus did not claim divinity or a unique messianic kingship in the way that some Jewish and Christian traditions suggest.

Interpretation of Matthew 22, verses 42 to 45

In Matthew 22, verses 42 to 45, Jesus questions the Pharisees about the Messiah’s lineage, asking why David calls the Messiah “Lord” if the Messiah is his son. Some Islamic scholars have interpreted this passage as indicating that Jesus was referring to someone other than himself. Jesus was distancing himself from the traditional Jewish expectation of a Davidic Messiah. They contend that Jesus denied the future Messiah’s lineage from David and instead highlighted an inconsistent interpretation of messianic prophecy by the scribes.

Jesus and Prophet Muhammad

Some Islamic scholars extend this interpretation to suggest that Jesus was alluding to another figure who would fulfill the messianic expectations more completely. They propose that this messianic figure is Prophet Muhammad, who is considered the Seal of the Prophets in Islam and is believed to have brought the final and complete revelation from God. This perspective is supported by the belief that Jesus foretold the coming of Muhammad, aligning with the Islamic view that all prophets, including Jesus, pointed towards the final messenger.

Jesus and Deuteronomy 18, verse 18

Regarding Deuteronomy 18, verse 18, which speaks of a prophet like Moses, Islamic scholars argue that Jesus did not publicly claim to be this prophet. Instead, they believe that this prophecy refers to Muhammad, who, like Moses, brought a comprehensive law and led a community of believers. This interpretation is consistent with the Islamic view that Muhammad fulfills the role of the final prophet, bringing the last and complete message from God.

Conclusion

Islamic scholars argue that Jesus, although being a messiah like other messiahs before him, did not claim to be the Davidic Messiah in the traditional Jewish sense and that he did not see himself as the prophet mentioned in Deuteronomy 18, verse 18. Instead, they believe that these roles were fulfilled by Prophet Muhammad. This interpretation is rooted in a broader theological framework that sees Jesus as a significant prophet and messenger who foretold the coming of Muhammad, the final prophet.

This is the tomb of Cyrus II of Persia, the ruler who released the Jewish people to return to Judah with goods for the trip and rebuilding

CYRUS

Cyrus II, better known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder and first ruler of the Persian Empire (559–529 BC). Cyrus’s impact on the people of God is described in Isa. 44:28–45:13 (esp. 45:1), where God refers to this foreign king as “his anointed” or “his messiah” (mashiakh).

Such an honorific shows that it was really God himself who moved history to restore his people to their land. After Cyrus assumed leadership of the Persians, he defeated the Medes (c. 550 BC) and combined the two states into one. He then defeated the Lydians (c. 546 BC), located in Asia Minor with a capital at Sardis, ruled at that time by the legendary King Croesus. Cyrus then turned his attention to the major prize, Babylon, whose kingdom extended from Palestine into Syria and across Mesopotamia.

In 539 BC he defeated the army of Babylon under the leadership of its king, Nabonidus, then soon entered the city, which, according to Dan. 5, was ruled by Nabonidus’s son and coregent, Belshazzar.
After inheriting the Babylonian empire and all its vassals, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed these subjugated people to return to their lands and rebuild their temples.

This decree is described in what has come to be known as the Cyrus Cylinder, a record of major events in Cyrus’s reign, but in the Bible the version is specifically directed toward the Jewish people (2 Chron. 36:23; Ezra 1:2–4). Soon thereafter, some, but not all, Jewish exiles began to return to Jerusalem under the leadership of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel.


Cyrus died in 530 BC while fighting the Massagetae in central Asia. His son Cambyses II inherited his vast empire from him at that time.

Contents
Home

Jews, God’s Chosen People, and the Legacy Beyond Temple Loss

Azahari Hassim

Do Jews today still believe that they are God’s chosen people, even after the loss of their two temples which could be seen as a sign of divine abandonment?

The belief that Jews are God’s chosen people is a fundamental aspect of Jewish faith and identity. This belief is based on the covenant between God and the Jewish people as described in the Hebrew Bible. The loss of the two temples in Jerusalem (the First Temple destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE and the Second Temple destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE) has been interpreted by some as a sign of divine punishment or abandonment.

However, most Jews today still believe that they are God’s chosen people despite these historical events. They see the destruction of the temples as part of their history and theology, rather than evidence of being abandoned by God. Instead, many Jews view these events as opportunities for spiritual growth, renewal, and resilience.

Furthermore, Jewish tradition teaches that even in times of exile or suffering, God remains present with His chosen people. The concept of “chosenness” does not mean superiority over other peoples but rather a responsibility to uphold ethical values and contribute positively to the world.

In conclusion, while some may question how Jews can still believe they are God’s chosen people after losing their temples, for many Jews this belief remains central to their faith and identity despite historical challenges.

“Do not be grieved, my sons. There is another way of atoning for Israel’s sins which is no less efficacious. What is it? Acts of loving-kindness, as it is said, ‘For I desire mercy, not sacrifice.’”

Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai
Jews visit the Temple Mount compound, site of the Al Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem Old City, during the holiday of Sukkot

From a biblical perspective, can Judaism be characterized as the religion of sacrifice?

From a biblical perspective, Judaism can indeed be characterized as the religion of sacrifice. Sacrifice played a central role in the religious practice of ancient Israel as prescribed in the Hebrew Bible. In the book of Leviticus, detailed instructions are given for various types of sacrifices, including burnt offerings, grain offerings, sin offerings, guilt offerings, and peace offerings. These sacrifices were seen as a way for the Israelites to seek forgiveness for sins, express gratitude to God, and maintain a relationship with God.

The concept of sacrifice is deeply rooted in Jewish tradition and history, with the most significant sacrifices being those performed in the Temple in Jerusalem. However, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the practice of animal sacrifice ceased, and Judaism evolved to focus more on prayer, study of the Torah, and acts of loving-kindness as forms of worship.

While sacrifice continues to hold symbolic significance in Jewish liturgy and ritual, modern Judaism places greater emphasis on ethical behavior, personal repentance, and moral responsibility. Overall, Judaism can be characterized as a religion that has evolved over time, with sacrifice being an important aspect of its historical and theological foundation.

The Dome of the Rock occupies the area where the Holy Jewish Temple previously stood. The structure was completed in 692 AD, making it one of the oldest Islamic structures in the world. The Dome is a monumental building, beautifully decorated with mosaic, faience and marble. Much of these embellishments were added several centuries after its completion. 

From an Islamic viewpoint, Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem symbolizes the end of Judaism as a sacrificial religion, as it is linked to the former Jewish temple.

Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem, known as “Isra and Mi’raj”, holds significant religious and historical importance. This event is described in the Qur’an and Islamic traditions as a miraculous journey where Muhammad was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, specifically to the Temple Mount, and then ascended to heaven. The journey is seen as a pivotal moment in Islamic history, reinforcing the connection between Islam and the earlier Abrahamic religions, particularly Judaism.

Theological Significance

The Night Journey is often interpreted as a symbol of the transition from Judaism to Islam, emphasizing the continuity and the eventual supersession of Islam over Judaism. The journey to Jerusalem, a city deeply sacred to Jews, and the subsequent ascension from the Temple Mount, underscores the shift in religious significance from the Jewish Temple to the Islamic holy sites. This transition is further highlighted by the construction of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount, which became central to Islamic worship and identity.

Historical Context

Historically, the Night Journey and the subsequent construction of Islamic monuments in Jerusalem were also politically motivated. The Umayyad dynasty, which ruled the Islamic empire after Muhammad’s death, sought to elevate Jerusalem’s status to compete with Mecca, which was controlled by a rival faction. By building the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Umayyads aimed to create a rival religious center that would attract pilgrims and bolster their political power.

Religious Practices

The Night Journey also influenced Islamic religious practices. Initially, Muslims prayed towards Jerusalem (Al-Aqsa Mosque) for a period of 16 or 17 months after migrating to Medina. Later, the direction of prayer (qibla) was changed to face the Kaaba in Mecca, following a revelation received by Muhammad. This change underscored the centrality of Mecca in Islam while maintaining Jerusalem’s importance as a sacred site.

Contemporary Significance

Today, the Temple Mount, known as Haram al-Sharif in Islam, remains a highly contested site, central to both Jewish and Islamic religious identities. The status quo agreement governing the site aims to maintain peace by restricting Jewish prayer and allowing Muslim worship. However, tensions often flare, with Palestinian terror groups using the site’s religious significance to incite violence against Israel.

Conclusion

In summary, from an Islamic perspective, Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem symbolizes the transition from Judaism to Islam, emphasizing the continuity and eventual supersession of Islam. The journey and the subsequent construction of Islamic monuments on the Temple Mount underscore the shift in religious significance from the Jewish Temple to Islamic holy sites, reflecting both theological and political motivations.

Jeremiah

Prophet Jeremiah, known for his prophecies and lamentations around the time of the First Temple’s destruction in 586 BCE, expressed profound sorrow and warning regarding the fate of Jerusalem and its Temple. One of his most poignant expressions regarding the Temple is found in Jeremiah 7:4, where he critiques the false sense of security that people placed in the physical structure of the Temple:

“Do not trust in deceptive words and say, ‘This is the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord!'”

This quote is part of a larger discourse in which Jeremiah warns the people of Judah and Jerusalem that relying on the mere presence of the Temple, while continuing to engage in unethical behaviors, would not save them from divine judgment. Jeremiah’s message emphasizes that genuine repentance and ethical living are more important than the external rituals performed in the Temple. This theme resonates throughout the Book of Jeremiah, where he repeatedly calls for sincere worship and social justice as the true means to please God, rather than mere ritualistic observance.

Contents
Home

Analyzing differences in Ishmael and Isaac stories in the Bible: focusing on age and sacrifice

Azahari Hassim

Here is how the Jewish scribe manipulated Ishmael’s story:

  1. The age of Ishmael at the time of his departure from Abraham’s house.
  2. Abraham’s son, who was offered as a sacrifice.

Some people think that Ishmael, when sent away by Abraham in the Torah, was just a young child, not a teenager, based on the phrase “and he grew” in Genesis 21, verse 20. They point out that the Hebrew word “yelid” is used for both Ishmael and baby Moses (Exodus 2, verse 6). How do they explain this argument?

The argument is articulated by pointing out the use of the Hebrew word “yelid” in both Genesis 21, verses 14 to 15, and Exodus 2, verse 6. In these verses, “yelid” is used to describe both Ishmael and infant Moses. Supporters of the argument claim that since “yelid” is used to describe Moses when he was an infant, it should also be understood to mean that Ishmael was still a young child in Genesis 21, verse 20.

Additionally, the phrase “and he grew” in Genesis 21, verse 20, is interpreted by some to imply that Ishmael was still in the process of growing and developing, suggesting a younger age. They argue that if Ishmael were already a teenager or older, it would not be necessary to mention his growth.

It should be noted, however, that interpretations of biblical texts can vary, and different scholars or readers may have different understandings of the intended meaning.

Why are the statements about Abraham wanting to sacrifice his son in Genesis 22, verse 2, and verse 16 problematic? In one case, the son is referred to as “the only,” while in the other, the name of the son is not mentioned.

The story of Abraham being tested to sacrifice his son in Genesis 22 has raised some interpretative questions and concerns among readers. Specifically, the statements as mentioned in verses 2 and 16 are problematic for a couple of reasons.

First, in Genesis 22, verse 2, when God calls Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac is described as “your only son.” However, this raises a discrepancy because at that point, Abraham already had an older son named Ishmael, born to Hagar. Ishmael was not mentioned in this context, leading to confusion regarding why Isaac was referred to as the “only” son. This linguistic inconsistency has led some scholars to suggest that the story might have been composed independently from other narratives that mention Ishmael.

Secondly, in Genesis 22, verse 16, after Abraham successfully passes the test and God intervenes by providing a ram as a substitute sacrifice, God blesses Abraham and says, “because you have not withheld your son, your only son.” This repetition of “your only son” raises another concern since Isaac’s name is not mentioned. It seems that the narrative originally presents the unnamed and only son of Abraham, alluding to Ishmael who lived as Abraham’s only son for almost 14 years before Isaac was born.

These discrepancies may be due to several factors, such as different sources or traditions being woven together, intentional theological messaging, or even potential editorial modifications over time. Scholars have examined these issues and proposed various explanations to reconcile the inconsistencies, but it remains a topic of debate and interpretation.

Ultimately, the problematic nature of these statements arises from the textual and narrative intricacies within the story, which have led to questions about authorship, redaction, and theological implications.

RASHI’S COMMENTARY (Genesis 21:14)

and the child: (Gen. Rabbah 53:13) He also placed the child (Ishmael) on her shoulder, because Sarah had cast an evil eye upon him, and he was seized by a fever so that he could not walk on his feet.

Islamic Hajj as a reflection of alterations in the Torah

There is an argument among scholars regarding the significance of Hajj in Islam as a restored religion tracing back to Abraham. It is posited that Ishmael was exiled as a young child well before the birth of Isaac, and that Ishmael, rather than Isaac, was the intended sacrifice. How is this argument articulated?

The argument regarding the significance of Hajj in Islam as a restored religion tracing back to Abraham, and the associated narrative involving Ishmael and Isaac, is articulated through several key points:

  1. Lineage and Prophetic Tradition:
    In Islamic tradition, Hajj is deeply connected to the figure of Abraham (Ibrahim). Muslims believe that Abraham, along with his son Ishmael (Ismail), played a foundational role in establishing the rites of Hajj. The Kaaba, the central structure around which Hajj is performed, is believed to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael.
  2. The Story of Ishmael and Isaac:
    Exile of Ishmael: According to Islamic narratives, long before Isaac was born, Ishmael and his mother Hagar were settled by Abraham in the desert of Mecca, which is where the Zamzam well miraculously appeared to sustain both of Hagar and her infant son Ishmael. This event is commemorated during the Hajj. The Sacrifice: Islamic tradition holds that it was Ishmael, not Isaac, who was the intended sacrifice. This is based on interpretations of the Quran, specifically Surah 37, verses 100 to 113, where it is generally understood that the son who was to be sacrificed was Ishmael. According to the sequence of events in the Quran, the promise of Isaac’s birth comes after the story of sacrifice, indicating that Ishmael is the son in question.
    This contrasts with the Judeo-Christian tradition, which identifies Isaac as the intended sacrifice.
  3. Symbolic Acts of Hajj: The rites of Hajj include reenactments and commemorations of events from the lives of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael. For instance:

The Sa’i, which involves walking seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah, commemorates Hagar’s desperate search for water for her infant son Ishmael.

The stoning of the Jamarat represents Abraham’s rejection of Satan’s temptation, which is believed to have occurred when he was about to sacrifice Ishmael.

  1. Restoration of Abrahamic Monotheism:
    Islam views itself as a continuation and restoration of the pure monotheistic faith of Abraham. The Hajj serves as a means to reconnect with the Abrahamic legacy, emphasizing monotheism, obedience to God, and the unity of the Muslim community.

In summary, the argument hinges on the belief that Ishmael, rather than Isaac, was central to the narrative of sacrifice and that the rites of Hajj are rooted in the events of Abraham’s life as they unfolded in Mecca with Ishmael. This perspective underscores the significance of Hajj in Islam and its connection to Abraham as a pivotal prophet in the monotheistic tradition.

The New Unger’s Bible Dictionary

ISH′MAEL

Age at the Time of the Expulsion.

The age of Ishmael at the time of his expulsion has given occasion to considerable discussion. He was doubtless thirteen years of age (Gen. 17:25) at the time of his circumcision, and the time of his expulsion was about two or three years later (21:5-8). The translation of 21:14, which seems to speak of Ishmael as an infant, is not an appropriate expression.

It is unnecessary to assume that the child was put on Hagar’s shoulder, the construction of the Hebrew not requiring it; and the sense of the passage rendering it highly improbable. Hagar carried “them,” i.e., the bread and the skin of water, on her shoulder. The fact of the lad’s being overcome by thirst and fatigue before his hardy Egyptian mother is not remarkable, especially when we remember God’s miraculous interposition in her behalf.

Contents
Home

The Prophethood of Muhammad and the Hebrew Prophets: Exploring Biblical and Theological Foundations

Azahari Hassim

In Genesis, chapter 21 and verse 18, an important prophecy and interaction between God and Hagar regarding Ishmael is mentioned.

The verse states, “Arise, lift up the lad and hold him with your hand, for I will make him a great nation.

One hypothesis proposes that the prophethood of the Hebrew prophets is tied to the Torah given to Moses, whereas Muhammad’s prophethood is associated with the prophecy of Hagar which predates the Torah. How is this idea presented?

The hypothesis you mention explores the relationship and distinctions between the prophethood of the Hebrew prophets and that of Muhammad, focusing on their respective biblical and theological foundations. This idea can be presented and analyzed through various religious, historical, and scriptural perspectives:

The prophethood of the Hebrew prophets is often seen as being linked directly to the Torah, which according to Jewish tradition, was given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai. This link is crucial because it establishes a continuous line of prophetic authority and teaching that is rooted in the laws and ethical teachings of the Torah.

The prophets following Moses are considered to have the role of interpreting, enforcing, and expanding upon the Torah’s teachings.

In contrast, Muhammad’s prophethood is sometimes associated with the prophecy attributed to Hagar. Hagar, according to the Genesis account, was the servant of Abraham and Sarah, and mother of Ishmael, who is considered by Muslims to be an ancestor of Muhammad.

This association is used to argue that Muhammad’s prophetic lineage predates the Mosaic Torah and is linked instead to Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael.

This hypothesis suggests that there are distinct covenants in the Abrahamic religions that validate different prophetic traditions. The Hebrew prophets fall under the covenant of Moses and the Sinai revelation, while Muhammad is considered under the covenant given to Abraham and Ishmael (as Hagar’s son).

This distinction is important in Islamic theology which views Islam as a continuation and fulfillment of Abrahamic faith, independent of the Mosaic laws.

The idea also touches upon the nature of the revelations received by the prophets. The Torah is often viewed as a national revelation aimed at the Jewish people, containing civil, moral, and ceremonial laws specifically designed for them.

In contrast, Muhammad’s revelation (the Quran) is considered universal, intended for all humanity, and not tied to the specific legal and ritual practices of the Jews.

By associating Muhammad with a prophecy that predates the Torah, this hypothesis also underscores the notion that prophetic messages have been universal and ongoing throughout human history. This could be seen as an attempt to place Islam within a broader, inclusive prophetic tradition that transcends Jewish ethnic and religious boundaries.

PROPHET

An inspired messenger called by God to declare His will (Ezra 5:2). Prophets were described as God’s servants (Zech. 1:6), watchmen (Ezek. 3:17), and holy men (2 Pet. 1:21). In the N.T. the prophets were cited as a noble example of patient suffering (Jas. 5:10). Another word for prophet is seer.

Pharaoh Ramses II was believed to have been a contemporary of Moses. Ramses II is often associated with the biblical account of Moses leading the Israelites out of Egypt, as he ruled during the 13th century BCE, around the time that the events described in the Bible are thought to have taken place. Some historians and scholars believe that Ramses II could have been the pharaoh mentioned in the story of Moses, although this connection is not definitively proven.

The Miraculous Preservation of Pharaoh’s Body: The Connection to Muhammad as the Prophet Like Moses

Surah 10, verse 92, reads:

“Today We will preserve your body (O Pharaoh), so that you become a sign for those after you. But most people are heedless of Our signs.”

Some scholars contend that the discovery of Ramses’ body in modern times is viewed as a miraculous event in the Quran, specifically in Surah 10, verse 92. It resembles Moses’ parting of the Red Sea. As a result, they argue that Muhammad is the prophet mentioned in Deuteronomy 18, verse 18, similar to Moses. How do they express their argument?

The scholars who make this argument typically point to several key points to support their claim:

  1. Discovery of Ramses’ body: They argue that the discovery of Pharaoh Ramses II’s body in modern times is a significant event that aligns with the story of Pharaoh’s body being preserved as a sign in Surah 10, verse 92 of the Quran. This miraculous preservation of Pharaoh’s body is seen as a fulfillment of that prophecy.
  2. Resemblance to Moses’ parting of the Red Sea: The scholars suggest that the discovery of Ramses’ body can be seen as a parallel to the miracle of Moses parting the Red Sea, as both events involve extraordinary occurrences related to Pharaoh and Moses. This parallel further strengthens the connection between the two stories.
  3. Muhammad as the prophet like Moses: In Deuteronomy 18, verse 18, the Bible mentions the coming of a prophet like Moses, whom God will raise up among the brethren of Israelites. Some scholars argue that Muhammad fits the description of this prophet due to similarities in their roles, teachings, and experiences with prophethood.

By combining these points, scholars argue that the discovery of Ramses’ body, the resemblance to Moses’ story, and the identification of Muhammad as the prophet like Moses provide evidence for the divine inspiration of the Quran and Muhammad’s status as a prophet in the line of Moses.

Does Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21:18 predate the Torah given to Moses?

Yes, Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21:18 predates the Torah as given to Moses. The Book of Genesis, which includes the story of Hagar, is considered part of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible) and traditionally attributed to Moses. However, the events described in Genesis, including Hagar’s encounter with God and the prophecy concerning her son Ishmael, are believed to have occurred long before the time of Moses, around the patriarchal period.

The narrative in Genesis 21 describes Hagar and Ishmael in the context of Abraham’s family and is thus seen as part of the pre-Mosaic tradition. The Torah, or Pentateuch, as a compilation and codification, is generally understood to have been formalized during the time of Moses, which occurs much later in the biblical timeline. 

Therefore, the events and prophecies in Genesis can be considered as part of the earlier history before the giving of the law to Moses.

Contents
Home