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Azahari Hassim

🔹 Ishmael and Isaac: Sons of Abraham, Different Paths of Dedication

Introduction

The story of Abraham’s two sons, Ishmael and Isaac, is central to the shared heritage of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. While both sons embody Abraham’s devotion to God, their roles and legacies differ in ways that shaped the theological horizons of nations. Ishmael represents consecration from infancy through his association with the Kaaba, the House of God, while Isaac stands as the son of joy and promise, born to Abraham and Sarah in their old age. Together, their stories reflect divine reward, human sacrifice, and covenantal destiny.

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🔹 Ishmael: Consecrated in Infancy

According to Islamic tradition, Ishmael (Ismā‘īl عليه السلام) was dedicated to God from his earliest days. Abraham, at God’s command, left Hagar and infant Ishmael in the barren valley of Bakkah (later known as Mecca). This act was not abandonment but consecration: Ishmael was placed directly under God’s care, sustained by the miraculous spring of Zamzam.

The Kaaba, raised later by Abraham and Ishmael (Qur’ān 2:127–129), became the House of God on earth, a perpetual sign of Ishmael’s unique link to divine worship. Even the Bible hints at this sanctity when it states: “And God was with the child as he grew up” (Genesis 21:20). Ishmael, the firstborn, carried the sign of circumcision at thirteen, marking his flesh with the covenant long before Isaac was born. In this way, his entire life—from infancy onward—was devoted to God.

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🔹 Isaac: The Son of Joy and Reward

Isaac (Isḥāq عليه السلام), by contrast, represents divine joy and fulfillment. Born when Abraham was a hundred and Sarah ninety, his very name (Yitzḥaq in Hebrew, “he laughs”) reflects the wonder and laughter of parents blessed in their old age. Isaac’s birth was not only a miracle but also a reward from God, granted after Abraham’s willingness to dedicate his firstborn son, Ishmael, upon the altar of sacrifice.

The Torah preserves God’s words: “Take your son, your only son…” (Genesis 22:2). While Jewish and Christian traditions identify Isaac as the son of this near-sacrifice, Islamic tradition regards Ishmael as the one tested. Moreover, Isaac’s name reflects grace and fulfillment, not trial and sacrifice.

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🔹 Two Sons, One Covenant Story

Ishmael and Isaac embody two dimensions of Abraham’s devotion:

• Ishmael reflects consecration through sacrifice, hardship, and association with the House of God, Mecca. His line culminates in the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, through whom monotheism was universalized.
• Isaac reflects joy, blessing, and reward—proof that God fulfills promises even against natural odds. His line carries forward through Israel, the people who received the Law at Sinai.

Thus, the destinies of both sons form complementary expressions of the Abrahamic covenant: Ishmael sanctified from infancy, and Isaac gifted as a reward in old age. Together, they testify to God’s faithfulness, mercy, and the universality of His plan.

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🔹 Conclusion

The lives of Ishmael and Isaac cannot be reduced to rivalry but must be understood as twin strands in Abraham’s legacy. Ishmael symbolizes the House of God in Mecca, consecration from birth, and the spiritual resilience of a firstborn offered to God. Isaac embodies joy, fulfillment, and divine promise in the twilight years of Abraham and Sarah. In their distinct paths, both sons reveal how God weaves dedication and reward into the fabric of covenant history—a story still alive in the hearts of Jews, Christians, and Muslims today.

🕊️ A Nontraditional Chronological Reading of Genesis: Ishmael’s Role in the Sequence of Covenants

This argument represents a nontraditional chronological reading of Genesis that seeks to reconcile narrative and covenantal tensions surrounding Abraham, Ishmael, and Isaac. It reorders the events to portray Ishmael—not Isaac—as the son tested in the near-sacrifice episode, interpreting Genesis as a progressive unfolding of divine trials and covenantal ratifications.

➤ 1. Premise: The Covenants and Promises Are Sequentially Related

Proponents begin by noting that Genesis presents several covenantal moments with Abraham—particularly in Genesis 15, Genesis 17, Genesis 21, and Genesis 22—which they view as successive stages of a single divine plan rather than separate, unrelated episodes.

★ Genesis 15: God promises Abraham descendants as numerous as the stars.

★ Genesis 17: God formalizes this promise through the covenant of circumcision, renaming Abram as Abraham, “father of many nations.”

★ Genesis 21:14–20: Abraham faces his first test concerning Ishmael’s fate when Hagar and Ishmael are sent away into the wilderness.

★ Genesis 22: Abraham faces the ultimate test—offering his “only son” to God.

In this interpretive model, the episodes are not arranged chronologically in the canonical order. Genesis 21 and 22, both dealing with Ishmael, are understood to precede Genesis 17, forming the experiential foundation upon which the covenant of circumcision is later ratified.

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➤ 2. Genesis 22 — The Supreme Test: Abraham’s Willingness to Sacrifice Ishmael

In the canonical order, Genesis 22 features the near-sacrifice of Isaac. But the description of the son as “your only son” cannot apply to Isaac if Ishmael is alive and older. By placing Genesis 22 earlier—before Isaac’s conception—the narrative unfolds with perfect coherence:

• Ishmael is Abraham’s firstborn.

• Ishmael is Abraham’s only son at that stage.

• Ishmael is the son through whom Abraham has already received divine promises.

Thus, in non-canonical interpretations where Genesis 22 precedes Genesis 17, the son offered in the near-sacrifice must be Ishmael, since Isaac had not yet been born or even promised.

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➤ 3. Genesis 21:14–20 as the First Test of Abraham

Before the near-sacrifice in Genesis 22, the episode in Genesis 21:14–20 portrays Abraham’s earlier emotional trial involving Ishmael. In this narrative, Abraham sends Hagar and Ishmael into the wilderness at Sarah’s insistence. The text describes Ishmael as an infant carried by Hagar, a detail that aligns closely with the Islamic tradition in which Ishmael is still a small child when Abraham leaves him in the desert (Mecca).

According to Genesis 21:5, Ishmael would have been 16–17 years old at the time. Yet the surrounding verses (vv. 14–20) treat him as if he were a helpless toddler. This is not merely a literary flourish but a direct inconsistency in age and behavior within the same episode.

Therefore, in non-canonical interpretations, Genesis 21:14–20 is understood to occur prior to Genesis 17—specifically because the passage depicts Ishmael as an infant or small child, in stark contrast to Genesis 17, which explicitly states that Ishmael was already 13 years old. By placing the desert episode before Genesis 17, the age contradiction is resolved, and the narrative fits naturally within an earlier phase of Abraham’s life.

Viewed this way, the “banishment test” becomes Abraham’s first trial involving Ishmael, testing his faith in God’s promise concerning Ishmael’s survival and future greatness (“I will make him a great nation,” Gen 21:18).

The subsequent “sacrifice test” in Genesis 22 then functions as the second and supreme trial, where Abraham’s obedience reaches its deepest expression. Together, these two Ishmael-centered episodes frame the development of Abraham’s faith before the covenantal ratification of Genesis 17.

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➤ 4. Identification of the Sacrificed Son as Ishmael

On this reordered chronology:

★ The “only son” of Genesis 22 refers to Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn by Hagar.

★ The phrase “your son, your only son” (Gen 22:2) fits Ishmael prior to Isaac’s birth.

★ The later introduction of Isaac (Gen 17–18) is not a replacement but a continuation of the divine plan—rewarding Abraham’s faithfulness through a second lineage that expands the original covenant.

Hence, the Akedah (binding of the son) becomes a test of Ishmael’s line, and Genesis 17 becomes a ratification of that obedience through the promise of “many nations.”

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➤ 5. Genesis 17 as Covenant Ratification

In this model, Genesis 17 does not precede but follows the tests of Genesis 21–22. It represents God’s ratification of Abraham’s proven obedience:

★ Abraham is renamed and blessed as “father of many nations.”

★ Circumcision is introduced as a covenantal sign, extending the promise to all his progeny.

★ The birth of Isaac is announced as a reward and continuation of divine favor.

Thus, Genesis 17 serves as the formalization of the faith demonstrated earlier through Abraham’s trials involving Ishmael.

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➤ 6. Literary-Critical Perspective

From a literary-critical standpoint, this interpretation draws upon source-critical and redactional insights. Scholars employing the Documentary Hypothesis often distinguish between several compositional layers within Genesis, each reflecting different theological emphases and historical contexts:

★ Genesis 21 and Genesis 22 are generally attributed to the Elohist (E) and Jahwist (J) sources, which are earlier traditions. These sources emphasize vivid narrative, moral testing, and divine encounter—often conveyed through the figure of the angel of the Lord.

★ Genesis 17, by contrast, is assigned to the Priestly (P) source, which is later in composition and is marked by formal covenantal language, ritual precision, and theological systematization.

Within this framework, proponents of the chronological reordering argue that the older E/J traditions—which may have originally centered on Ishmael—were subsequently integrated and reinterpreted by Priestly editors. These later redactors inserted Genesis 17’s covenantal structure before the narrative of Genesis 22, thereby reshaping the sequence to emphasize Isaac as the covenantal heir.

Thus, from a literary-critical perspective, the hypothesis that Genesis 22 predates Genesis 17 in origin aligns with the idea that an earlier Ishmaelite-focused narrative was overlaid by a later Priestly redaction, producing the canonical order familiar today.

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➤ 7. Summary Articulation

To summarize:

★ 1. Genesis 21:14–20 presents Abraham’s first test concerning Ishmael’s separation, aligning with the Islamic account of the desert episode.

★ 2. Genesis 22 (the near-sacrifice) represents the second and climactic test, also involving Ishmael.

★ 3. Genesis 17, announcing Isaac’s birth and instituting circumcision, follows these trials and serves as God’s ratification of Abraham’s faith.

Therefore, the sequence Genesis 21 → Genesis 22 → Genesis 17 portrays a coherent theological and narrative progression in which Abraham’s obedience regarding Ishmael becomes the foundation for his establishment as the “father of many nations.”

This reading not only restores textual coherence to the phrase “your only son,” but also resolves the age contradiction, places the narrative within an earlier phase of Abraham’s life, integrates Ishmael’s covenantal significance, and provides a bridge between Biblical and Qur’anic portrayals of Abraham’s faith.

📖 Ishmael in Genesis 21: Baby vs. Mocking Teenager

Hagar and Ishmael cast out, as in Genesis 21, illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible.

This black-and-white engraving depicts the biblical scene of Hagar and Ishmael being cast out. A sorrowful Hagar is shown leading her young son Ishmael by the arm, walking barefoot and carrying provisions. Ishmael looks distressed, while Hagar appears contemplative and burdened. In the background, Abraham and Sarah can be seen near the doorway of a house—Sarah holding Isaac—emphasizing the cause of the expulsion. The illustration captures the pathos of separation and exile central to the Genesis 21 narrative.

✍️ A Case for Interpolation in Genesis 21:9–10

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⚖️ The Core Contradiction

Genesis 21 contains two irreconcilable portrayals of Ishmael:

• Genesis 21:14–20 → Ishmael is depicted as a helpless child—carried on Hagar’s shoulder, laid under a bush, and rescued by an angel. Verse 20 reinforces this image: “And God was with the boy, and he grew.” If Ishmael had already been a teenager or older, it would not have been necessary to mention his growth.
• Genesis 21:9–10 → Ishmael appears as a teenager “mocking” Isaac, prompting Sarah to demand his expulsion to secure Isaac’s inheritance.

But according to Genesis 16:16 and 21:5, Ishmael was 16–17 years old at this point. The surrounding verses (vv. 14–20), however, treat him as if he were an infant. This is not a stylistic flourish but a direct contradiction in age and behavior within the same episode.

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📜 The Textual Inconsistency

The contradiction is sharp:

• 👶 Genesis 21:14–20 + 21:20 → Ishmael is a small boy growing up under God’s care.
• 🧑‍🦱 Genesis 21:9–10 → Ishmael is a mocking adolescent, a threat to Isaac’s status.

This inconsistency strongly suggests that Genesis 21 combines two traditions or has been redacted with an interpolation to reshape the story.

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🔎 Why 21:9–10 is Interpolation

Several factors converge:

1. ⚖️ Contradictory portrayals: helpless child vs. mocking teenager.
2. ⚡ Abrupt insertion: v. 9 introduces a sudden and unexplained motive.
3. 📖 Theological shaping: vv. 9–10 are designed to exclude Ishmael from inheritance.
4. 📚 Textual fluidity: the LXX shows this very section was unstable.
5. 🧵 Narrative flow without vv. 9–10: the story reads smoothly if Sarah’s demand is absent—Abraham provides, Hagar departs, baby Ishmael nearly dies, God rescues, Ishmael grows.

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✡️ Hebrew Note

In Genesis 21:14, the Hebrew says:

וַיִּתֵּ֣ן אֶל־הָגָ֑ר שָׂ֣ם עַל־שִׁכְמָ֔הּ וְאֶת־הַיֶּ֖לֶד

“He put [the bread and water] on her shoulder, and [he gave her] the child.”

Some translations smooth this as if Abraham “placed the child on her shoulder,” reinforcing the infant image. Others take it as “gave her the child,” but the syntax still suggests dependence and smallness—clashing with the teenager portrayal of vv. 9–10.

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☪️ The Islamic Resonance

The “helpless child” imagery in Genesis 21 aligns closely with the Islamic tradition, in which Abraham leaves Hagar and infant Ishmael in the valley of Makkah, where God miraculously provides water (the well of Zamzam 💧).

This suggests that the older stratum of the story remembered Ishmael as a baby. The later interpolation (vv. 9–10) reframes him as a rival heir to justify his expulsion and Isaac’s primacy.

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✅ Conclusion

Genesis 21 preserves two incompatible portrayals of Ishmael:

• 👶 one as a baby in need of rescue (vv. 14-20),
• 🧑 one as a mocking teenager (vv.9-10).

The tension is best explained by redactional activity, with Genesis 21:9–10 functioning as an interpolation to serve Israel’s covenantal theology.

Without those verses, the passage regains coherence and aligns with an earlier tradition—one that resonates strongly with the Islamic account of Ishmael’s infancy.

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Azahari Hassim

📜 Until Shiloh Comes: The Transfer of Covenant from Sinai to Abraham through Ishmael

Introduction

🌟 Genesis 49:10 stands as one of the most profound prophecies in the Hebrew Bible, where Jacob’s blessing to Judah speaks of a mysterious figure called “Shiloh”. For centuries, both Jewish and Christian traditions have understood this verse as messianic, anticipating a redeemer from Judah’s lineage.

However, when examined through the wider lens of covenantal theology, this verse reveals a deeper transition — from the Sinai covenant, particular to Israel and bound by Mosaic law, to the Abrahamic covenant, universal in scope and ultimately fulfilled through Ishmael’s descendants.

This article explores how the prophecy of “Shiloh” may refer not to a ruler from Judah, but to a divinely appointed messenger from Ishmael’s descendants, through whom the Abrahamic faith reaches its completion and universality in the message of Islam.

This perspective recognizes that it was Ishmael, not Isaac, whom God commanded Abraham to offer in sacrifice — the supreme act of submission that sealed Abraham’s faith. This event, memorialized every year by Muslims in the festival of Eid al-Adha, signifies the enduring covenant through Ishmael’s line, culminating in the coming of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the promised Shiloh through whom divine guidance attained its universal form.

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1. The Context of Jacob’s Prophecy

In Genesis 49, Jacob gathers his twelve sons and speaks of their future destinies. Concerning Judah, he declares:

“The scepter shall not depart from Judah,
nor a lawgiver from between his feet,
until Shiloh comes;
and to him shall the obedience of the peoples be.”
(Genesis 49:10)

Traditionally, this prophecy has been interpreted as predicting Judah’s enduring leadership until the arrival of a messianic ruler. Yet a covenantal reading reveals that this marks not permanence but transition — from Judah’s temporal authority under the Sinai covenant to the restoration of the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, the son of sacrifice and obedience.

Several scholars believe that the word “until” in the verse indicates the time at which Judah’s authority ended.

Therefore, Shiloh (Messiah) does not descend from David’s lineage, which is traced back to Judah.

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2. The Scepter and Lawgiver: Symbols of the Sinai Covenant

The first half of the verse — “The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet” — symbolizes the religious and political authority vested in Judah.

The scepter represents kingship, embodied in David and his royal line.

The lawgiver refers to the Torah, the revealed law of Sinai that governed Israel’s covenantal life.

This Sinaitic covenant was conditional and particular, bound to a specific nation and land. It endured “until Shiloh came” — until divine authority passed to the heir of Abraham’s universal covenant through Ishmael.

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3. Shiloh and the Renewal of the Abrahamic Covenant through Ishmael

The word Shiloh carries meanings such as peace, rest, or he whose right it is. It thus designates the rightful inheritor of divine authority.

In the story of Abraham’s supreme test, as preserved in Islamic tradition, Ishmael is the son chosen for sacrifice — the act that confirmed both Abraham’s faith and Ishmael’s submission. In recognition of this, God renewed His promise:

“As for Ishmael, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation.”
(Genesis 17:20)

This promise is inseparable from the earlier Abrahamic benediction in Genesis 22:18:

“And in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed, because you have obeyed My voice.”

From an Islamic perspective, this universal blessing reaches its perfection in Shiloh — the divinely appointed messenger from Ishmael’s descendants, Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, through whom the Abrahamic faith was universalized beyond lineage and territory.

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4. Shiloh as the Prophet from Ishmael’s Descendants

In the Islamic understanding, Shiloh points to Muhammad ﷺ, the final messenger and restorer of Abrahamic monotheism.

The scepter and lawgiver symbolize Judah’s rule under the Mosaic order, which lasted until Shiloh’s advent.

The arrival of Shiloh marks the transfer of divine covenant from a national to a universal dispensation.

The phrase “and to him shall the obedience of the peoples be” finds its fulfillment in the global ummah united in Islam.

Through Muhammad ﷺ, the two branches of Abraham’s family — Isaac and Ishmael — converge in spiritual unity, as the promise made on the mountain of sacrifice finds its universal realization.

This fulfills the Abrahamic prophecy of Genesis 22:18 — “in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed” — echoed centuries later in the Qur’anic verse:

“And We have not sent you (O Muhammad) except as a mercy to all the worlds.”
(Surah 21:107)

The blessing to “all nations” in Genesis thus finds its full resonance in the Qur’an’s rahmah lil-‘ālamīn — mercy to the worlds.”

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5. The Living Memory of the Covenant: Eid al-Adha

The memory of Abraham’s near-sacrifice of Ishmael is not a forgotten legend. It is commemorated annually by Muslims worldwide in the sacred festival of Eid al-Adha (“The Feast of Sacrifice”).

Each year, millions of believers retrace Abraham’s obedience by offering sacrifices in remembrance of his willingness to surrender his beloved son at God’s command. This universal observance — transcending race, nation, and language — is the living embodiment of the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, reaffirming humanity’s submission (Islām) to the One God.

Through Eid al-Adha, the covenant of faith, obedience, and trust in divine will is renewed across generations — a perpetual testimony that the legacy of Abraham and Ishmael remains alive within the heart of the Muslim community.

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6. The Biblical and Qur’anic Continuity

The Qur’an reaffirms this covenantal unity:

“Were you witnesses when death approached Jacob, when he said to his sons:
‘What will you worship after me?’
They said: ‘We will worship your God, and the God of your fathers — Abraham, Ishmael, and Isaac — One God, and to Him we submit.’”
(Qur’an 2:133)

Here, Ishmael stands explicitly alongside Abraham and Isaac as a patriarch of covenantal faith, confirming that divine favor is not ethnic but spiritual — a continuity of submission to the Creator.

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7. The Transfer of Covenant and Authority

The New Testament, too, preserves a hint of this covenantal transition. Jesus proclaimed:

“And I say unto you, that many shall come from the east and west, and shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven.
But the children of the kingdom shall be cast out into outer darkness: there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth.”
(Matthew 8:11–12)

This declaration signifies a divine realignment of covenantal authority. The “children of the kingdom” — those who claimed exclusive descent from Israel — would lose their privileged position, while “many from the east and west” would inherit the covenantal blessings by embracing the faith of Abraham.

From an Islamic perspective, this imagery points to the emergence of a new spiritual community beyond ethnic or national boundaries — the ummah of Islam — gathered from all directions of the earth. It is this global assembly of believers, united in the submission (Islām) that characterized Abraham himself, who truly “sit with Abraham” in the renewed Kingdom of Heaven.

In the Abrahamic continuum, this renewal is realized through Ishmael’s descendants, led by Muhammad ﷺ, the promised Shiloh, through whom the covenant finds its universal completion. Thus, the “Kingdom of Heaven” in Jesus’ saying can be seen as the restored Abrahamic faith of submission, embodied and perfected in Islam.

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8. From Sinai to Mecca: The Completion of the Covenant

The geography of revelation reflects this sacred progression:

From Mount Sinai, where the Law was given to Moses;
To Mount Zion, where David ruled over Israel;
To the Sanctuary of Mecca, where Muhammad ﷺ restored the House of Abraham.

Thus, revelation moves from law to faith, from tribe to humanity, from Sinai to Mecca. The coming of Shiloh from Ishmael’s line fulfills the Abrahamic promise in its universal form, making Islam the completion of the covenant’s long journey — the very fulfillment of Genesis 22:18 and Surah 21:107 united in one divine truth.

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9. Conclusion

Genesis 49:10 encapsulates the divine drama of covenantal history — the passing of the scepter of revelation from Judah’s temporal rule to Ishmael’s enduring spiritual lineage.

For the Jews, Shiloh remains the awaited Messiah.
For Christians, he prefigures Christ.
But for Muslims, he is Muhammad ﷺ — the promised Shiloh, the Seal of Prophethood, and the descendant of Ishmael, whose submission on the altar of sacrifice became the symbol of perfect faith.

Every year, the world’s Muslim community renews this covenant through Eid al-Adha, keeping alive the memory of Abraham’s trial and Ishmael’s obedience. Through that living tradition, the promise of Genesis 22:18 — “in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed” — finds its full realization in the Qur’an’s affirmation:

“And We have not sent you (O Muhammad) except as a mercy to all the worlds.”
(Surah 21:107)

Thus, the Abrahamic covenant, universalized through Ishmael and fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ, stands as the enduring testament that divine mercy, guidance, and covenantal blessing belong to all humankind.

Samaritan Interpretation of Shiloh in Genesis 49:10

📜 Samaritan Interpretation of Shiloh in Genesis 49:10

The Samaritan interpretation of “Shiloh” (שִׁילֹה) in Genesis 49:10 differs dramatically from traditional Jewish and Christian messianic readings. Samaritans identify Shiloh with King Solomon, viewing this passage not as a prophecy of the Messiah but as a negative assessment of Solomon’s reign and moral failings.

The Samaritan Text and Translation

The Samaritan Pentateuch presents Genesis 49:10-12 with significant textual variations from the Masoretic Text. Based on Samaritan Targumim (Aramaic translations), the passage reads: “The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from among his hosts, until Shiloh comes. To him the people are gathering. He turned aside to his city, Gaphna [Jerusalem], and the sons of his strength to emptiness. He washes his garment in wine and his robe in the blood of grapes. His eyes are turbid from wine and white are his teeth from fat”.

In Samaritan Arabic translations, the identification becomes explicit. One medieval manuscript directly states: “The reign shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from among his hosts until Solomon comes. And the peoples will follow him”.

Theological Significance: Solomon as Shiloh

The medieval Samaritan-Arabic commentary Šarḥ al-barakatayn (“The Explanation of the Two Blessings”), commonly ascribed to the period after Ṣadaqa b. Munaǧǧā (died after 1223), provides detailed exegesis of this identification. According to this commentary:

The passage means that Judah’s descendants would remain under God’s blessing and obedience to the law “until the one mentioned before (i.e., Shiloh) comes. He removes the law, adopts a vile belief and permits negligence in religion, so that the fool may follow him”. The commentary explains that when it says “And the peoples will follow him,” this means many people will follow him, “because those who act righteously are small in number”.

The text explicitly states: “And this (i.e., Shiloh) is Solomon because the smallest of sins he committed, was that he took from the daughters of the kings dissenting from religion and married them, and (he committed even) more of the major sins”.

Criticism of Solomon’s Character

The Samaritan interpretation emphasizes Solomon’s moral deficiencies, particularly his excessive consumption and character flaws:
Wine and Luxury: Genesis 49:11 (“He binds his ass to the vine”) is interpreted as referring to Solomon’s excessive planting of vineyards and love for pressing wine. The commentary warns that “too much wine distracts the mind and hinders the body to rise, just as the clouds hinder the sunlight”.

Self-Indulgence: The phrase “his eyes are turbid from wine” is understood as describing Solomon when “the covetous power triumphs over the mind,” showing that “he was irrepressibly greedy and full of it”. The reference to teeth being “white from fat” indicates his excessive consumption of meat, which the commentary notes “is surely dispraised by law and by tradition”.

Historical Context and Samaritan Chronicles

This identification appears consistently in Samaritan literature beyond commentaries. The Samaritan Chronicle II (edited by Macdonald) uses “Shiloh” interchangeably with “Solomon” throughout, written in Neo-Samaritan Hebrew. The chronicle states: “Thus applies the statement of our ancestor Jacob concerning the tribe of Judah to the times of King Solomon the son of David. All these words apply in the same way to the deeds of King Solomon the son of David, for he behaved exactly as this statement said”.

Polemical Purpose

This interpretation serves a clear polemical function within Samaritan theology. The Samaritan tradition emphasizes the primacy of Joseph over Judah, in direct contrast to Jewish-Christian focus on Judah’s preeminence. By identifying Shiloh with Solomon and portraying him negatively, Samaritans accomplish several goals:

❇️ 1. Opposing Jewish messianic claims: They reject the Jewish identification of Shiloh with a future Messiah from the tribe of Judah.

❇️ 2. Discrediting the Jerusalem Temple: Solomon’s negative portrayal serves to delegitimize the Jerusalem Temple he built, which Samaritans considered a schismatic sanctuary competing with their legitimate worship center on Mount Gerizim.

❇️ 3. Challenging Davidic authority: The interpretation undermines the authority of the Davidic line and the tribe of Judah as a whole, “in gross opposition to the priority that is given to them in Jewish and Christian exegesis”.

This stands in stark contrast to ancient Jewish sources like the Dead Sea Scrolls and Targum Onkelos, which interpreted Genesis 49:10 messianically, as well as Christian interpretations that see it fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth. The Samaritan reading represents a unique alternative that transforms a prophecy of blessing into a warning about moral corruption and religious decline.

How do Samaritan beliefs differ from Jewish beliefs?

🏞️ The image depicts Samaritan men in white garments and red fez hats gathered on Mount Gerizim for a religious ritual. A participant holds a Torah scroll wrapped in a blue-striped tallit. The scene, illuminated by warm light during sunrise or sunset, highlights their Passover or pilgrimage festival, celebrated in accordance with ancient Israelite traditions.

Samaritans share Israelite monotheism and the Mosaic Torah with Jews, but they diverge on scripture, sacred place, religious authority, and messianic expectation—accepting only the Pentateuch, centering worship on Mount Gerizim, upholding priestly authority over rabbinic law, and expecting the Taheb (a prophet-like-Moses, Deut. 18:18) rather than a Davidic Messiah. These differences shape distinct liturgy, festivals, and communal life despite overlapping origins and many shared practices.

Scripture and canon

Samaritans regard the Torah as the sole divinely authoritative scripture, holding the Samaritan Pentateuch to be the original and unchanged Torah and treating Moses as the greatest prophet. They explicitly reject the Prophets, Writings, and all rabbinic Oral Torah (Mishnah/Talmud), which are central sources of authority in Rabbinic Judaism.

Sacred place

For Samaritans, Mount Gerizim is the one legitimate sanctuary chosen by God, and they do not recognize the sanctity of Jerusalem or its Temple Mount. Jewish tradition centers holiness on Jerusalem and Mount Zion, in contrast to the Samaritan focus on Gerizim.

Authority and law

Samaritan religious authority is vested in a hereditary priesthood from the tribe of Levi, and halakhic life is derived directly and literally from the Torah rather than from later rabbinic interpretation. By contrast, Jews look to rabbinic teachers and the halakhic tradition embodied in the Oral Torah for interpretation and application of the commandments, which Samaritans reject.

Textual tradition

The Samaritan Pentateuch differs from the Masoretic Text in roughly six thousand places, with some variants affecting interpretation as well as wording, and Samaritans affirm their version preserves the pristine Torah. Samaritans also preserve readings that emphasize Mount Gerizim’s primacy, aligning with their sanctuary doctrine.

Messianic hope

Samaritans anticipate the Taheb (“Restorer”), a prophet-like-Moses from the tribe of Joseph who will inaugurate the end time, gather Israel, and accompany the resurrection of the dead, rediscovering the Tabernacle’s tent on Mount Gerizim before his death. Jewish eschatology, by contrast, awaits the Messiah rather than the Taheb, a distinction noted in intergroup comparisons of belief.

Ritual practice

Samaritans continue literal Pentateuchal observances such as the communal Passover lamb sacrifice on Mount Gerizim, along with distinctive prayer customs (including praying barefoot and facing Gerizim) and strict purity practices, including separate housing for menstruating women. They celebrate only the biblical festivals mandated in the Torah (e.g., Passover, Unleavened Bread, Weeks), and they do not observe later Jewish holidays like Hanukkah or Purim because these are not in the Pentateuch.

Lineage and community

Samaritans maintain patrilineal descent norms and historically have required adherence to Torah-based communal standards, with prayers oriented toward Gerizim. The community is very small and is concentrated around Mount Gerizim (near Nablus) and in Holon in Israel.

Historical self-understanding

Samaritans present themselves as the faithful Israelite remnant that preserved the original Mosaic religion in the north after the Assyrian conquest, with the split rooted in rival sanctuaries and priestly lines. In this view, Jerusalem’s prominence arose with dissenters who followed Eli to Shiloh, while the true sanctuary and priestly succession remained at Gerizim among those who became the Samaritans.

Common ground

Both Samaritans and Jews are heirs of ancient Israel and worship the one God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, receiving the Torah through Moses as foundational revelation. They share many commandments and patterns of life from the Torah, even as their canons, sanctuaries, and authorities diverged over time.

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Azahari Hassim

🕊️ A Nontraditional Chronological Reading of Genesis: Ishmael’s Role in the Sequence of Covenants

This argument represents a nontraditional chronological reading of Genesis that seeks to reconcile narrative and covenantal tensions surrounding Abraham, Ishmael, and Isaac. It reorders the events to portray Ishmael—not Isaac—as the son tested in the near-sacrifice episode, interpreting Genesis as a progressive unfolding of divine trials and covenantal ratifications.

➤ 1. Premise: The Covenants and Promises Are Sequentially Related

Proponents begin by noting that Genesis presents several covenantal moments with Abraham—particularly in Genesis 15, Genesis 17, Genesis 21, and Genesis 22—which they view as successive stages of a single divine plan rather than separate, unrelated episodes.

★ Genesis 15: God promises Abraham descendants as numerous as the stars.

★ Genesis 17: God formalizes this promise through the covenant of circumcision, renaming Abram as Abraham, “father of many nations.”

★ Genesis 21:14–20: Abraham faces his first test concerning Ishmael’s fate when Hagar and Ishmael are sent away into the wilderness.

★ Genesis 22: Abraham faces the ultimate test—offering his “only son” to God.

In this interpretive model, the episodes are not arranged chronologically in the canonical order. Genesis 21 and 22, both dealing with Ishmael, are understood to precede Genesis 17, forming the experiential foundation upon which the covenant of circumcision is later ratified.

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➤ 2. Genesis 22 — The Supreme Test: Abraham’s Willingness to Sacrifice Ishmael

In the canonical order, Genesis 22 features the near-sacrifice of Isaac. But the description of the son as “your only son” cannot apply to Isaac if Ishmael is alive and older. By placing Genesis 22 earlier—before Isaac’s conception—the narrative unfolds with perfect coherence:

• Ishmael is Abraham’s firstborn.

• Ishmael is Abraham’s only son at that stage.

• Ishmael is the son through whom Abraham has already received divine promises.

Thus, in non-canonical interpretations where Genesis 22 precedes Genesis 17, the son offered in the near-sacrifice must be Ishmael, since Isaac had not yet been born or even promised.

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➤ 3. Genesis 21:14–20 as the First Test of Abraham

Before the near-sacrifice in Genesis 22, the episode in Genesis 21:14–20 portrays Abraham’s earlier emotional trial involving Ishmael. In this narrative, Abraham sends Hagar and Ishmael into the wilderness at Sarah’s insistence. The text describes Ishmael as an infant carried by Hagar, a detail that aligns closely with the Islamic tradition in which Ishmael is still a small child when Abraham leaves him in the desert (Mecca).

According to Genesis 21:5, Ishmael would have been 16–17 years old at the time. Yet the surrounding verses (vv. 14–20) treat him as if he were a helpless toddler. This is not merely a literary flourish but a direct inconsistency in age and behavior within the same episode.

Therefore, in non-canonical interpretations, Genesis 21:14–20 is understood to occur prior to Genesis 17—specifically because the passage depicts Ishmael as an infant or small child, in stark contrast to Genesis 17, which explicitly states that Ishmael was already 13 years old. By placing the desert episode before Genesis 17, the age contradiction is resolved, and the narrative fits naturally within an earlier phase of Abraham’s life.

Viewed this way, the “banishment test” becomes Abraham’s first trial involving Ishmael, testing his faith in God’s promise concerning Ishmael’s survival and future greatness (“I will make him a great nation,” Gen 21:18).

The subsequent “sacrifice test” in Genesis 22 then functions as the second and supreme trial, where Abraham’s obedience reaches its deepest expression. Together, these two Ishmael-centered episodes frame the development of Abraham’s faith before the covenantal ratification of Genesis 17.

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➤ 4. Identification of the Sacrificed Son as Ishmael

On this reordered chronology:

★ The “only son” of Genesis 22 refers to Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn by Hagar.

★ The phrase “your son, your only son” (Gen 22:2) fits Ishmael prior to Isaac’s birth.

★ The later introduction of Isaac (Gen 17–18) is not a replacement but a continuation of the divine plan—rewarding Abraham’s faithfulness through a second lineage that expands the original covenant.

Hence, the Akedah (binding of the son) becomes a test of Ishmael’s line, and Genesis 17 becomes a ratification of that obedience through the promise of “many nations.”

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➤ 5. Genesis 17 as Covenant Ratification

In this model, Genesis 17 does not precede but follows the tests of Genesis 21–22. It represents God’s ratification of Abraham’s proven obedience:

★ Abraham is renamed and blessed as “father of many nations.”

★ Circumcision is introduced as a covenantal sign, extending the promise to all his progeny.

★ The birth of Isaac is announced as a reward and continuation of divine favor.

Thus, Genesis 17 serves as the formalization of the faith demonstrated earlier through Abraham’s trials involving Ishmael.

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➤ 6. Literary-Critical Perspective

From a literary-critical standpoint, this interpretation draws upon source-critical and redactional insights. Scholars employing the Documentary Hypothesis often distinguish between several compositional layers within Genesis, each reflecting different theological emphases and historical contexts:

★ Genesis 21 and Genesis 22 are generally attributed to the Elohist (E) and Jahwist (J) sources, which are earlier traditions. These sources emphasize vivid narrative, moral testing, and divine encounter—often conveyed through the figure of the angel of the Lord.

★ Genesis 17, by contrast, is assigned to the Priestly (P) source, which is later in composition and is marked by formal covenantal language, ritual precision, and theological systematization.

Within this framework, proponents of the chronological reordering argue that the older E/J traditions—which may have originally centered on Ishmael—were subsequently integrated and reinterpreted by Priestly editors. These later redactors inserted Genesis 17’s covenantal structure before the narrative of Genesis 22, thereby reshaping the sequence to emphasize Isaac as the covenantal heir.

Thus, from a literary-critical perspective, the hypothesis that Genesis 22 predates Genesis 17 in origin aligns with the idea that an earlier Ishmaelite-focused narrative was overlaid by a later Priestly redaction, producing the canonical order familiar today.

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➤ 7. Summary Articulation

To summarize:

★ 1. Genesis 21:14–20 presents Abraham’s first test concerning Ishmael’s separation, aligning with the Islamic account of the desert episode.

★ 2. Genesis 22 (the near-sacrifice) represents the second and climactic test, also involving Ishmael.

★ 3. Genesis 17, announcing Isaac’s birth and instituting circumcision, follows these trials and serves as God’s ratification of Abraham’s faith.

Therefore, the sequence Genesis 21 → Genesis 22 → Genesis 17 portrays a coherent theological and narrative progression in which Abraham’s obedience regarding Ishmael becomes the foundation for his establishment as the “father of many nations.”

This reading not only restores textual coherence to the phrase “your only son,” but also resolves the age contradiction, places the narrative within an earlier phase of Abraham’s life, integrates Ishmael’s covenantal significance, and provides a bridge between Biblical and Qur’anic portrayals of Abraham’s faith.

The Abrahamic Covenant: Before or After the Near-Sacrifice?

🌟 The Abrahamic Covenant: Before or After the Near-Sacrifice?

The Abrahamic covenant is central to the shared heritage of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Yet a key question remains: Was this covenant established before or after the near-sacrifice of Abraham’s son? The answer depends on how the scriptures are read and how different traditions interpret the sequence of events.

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1. The Canonical Biblical Order

According to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, the Abrahamic covenant is established before the episode of sacrifice:

• Genesis 15 — God pledges to Abraham countless descendants and grants him the land of Canaan.
• Genesis 17 — The covenant is reaffirmed; Abraham receives his new name, circumcision is instituted as its sign, and the promise of nations and kings through his offspring is declared.
• Genesis 22 — Only afterward does the narrative describe the “Akedah” (binding of Isaac), where Abraham is commanded to sacrifice his son.

In this canonical sequence, the covenant precedes the sacrifice, with the latter serving as a divine test of Abraham’s loyalty and faith.

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2. The Qur’anic Perspective — Covenant After the Sacrifice

The Qur’an reorders the logic of the covenant. Instead of covenant preceding sacrifice, the covenant is bestowed after Abraham’s obedience in the trial of sacrifice:

• Surah al-Saffāt (37:100–113): Abraham sees in a vision that he must sacrifice his son (identified in Islamic tradition as Ishmael). Both father and son submit, but God ransoms the son with a great sacrifice, showing the fullness of their submission (islām).

• Surah al-Baqarah (2:124): This verse makes explicit that the covenant of leadership (imāmah) came after Abraham fulfilled his trials:

“And when Abraham was tested by his Lord with certain words and he fulfilled them, He said: ‘I have appointed you as a leader for the people.’ Abraham said: ‘And of my descendants?’ He said: ‘My covenant does not include the wrongdoers.’”

Here, covenantal authority is not automatic but conditional — awarded only after demonstrated faith.

Key Implications:

1. Obedience Before Covenant: The trial of sacrifice is the turning point that secures Abraham’s role as leader.
2. Ishmael’s Role: Since Ishmael is the son identified with the sacrifice, the covenant is understood to extend through him, culminating in the building of the Kaaba (Qur’an 2:125–129).
3. Conditional Covenant: The Qur’an stresses that covenantal blessings apply only to the righteous line of descendants.

Thus, from the Qur’anic perspective, the covenant is not pre-declared but ratified after Abraham’s supreme act of submission.

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3. Scholarly Reordered Reading of Genesis

Some modern interpreters also suggest that Genesis itself may be read in a reordered fashion:

1. Genesis 22 (Sacrifice): Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son demonstrates his ultimate faith.
2. Genesis 22:17 (Promise): God then promises to multiply Abraham’s descendants “as the stars of heaven and the sand on the seashore.”
3. Genesis 17 (Covenant): Abraham is finally declared “father of many nations” as a consequence, not a precondition.

This reading highlights Ishmael’s unique position: as the firstborn, circumcised before Isaac’s birth, Ishmael stands as the covenantal son through whom nations would arise.

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4. Summary of Perspectives

• Jewish & Christian Tradition (Canonical Order):
Covenant (Gen 15 & 17) → Near-sacrifice (Gen 22).

• Qur’anic Understanding:
Sacrifice (37:100–113) → Covenant confirmed (2:124) → Kaaba (2:125–129).

• Scholarly Reordering:
Genesis 22 (obedience & promise) → Genesis 17 (father of many nations).

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Conclusion

The question of whether the Abrahamic covenant was established before or after the sacrifice reveals profound theological differences.

• For Judaism and Christianity, the covenant is given first and tested later.

• For Islam, the covenant is established after Abraham’s trial of sacrifice, highlighting obedience as the gateway to divine leadership.

• For some scholars, Genesis itself is better read as sacrifice first, covenant second.

What unites all perspectives is the recognition that Abraham’s faith and obedience stand at the heart of God’s covenantal promise — whether as foundation, condition, or ultimate confirmation.

Abraham’s Promise of Many Nations: A Reconsideration of Genesis 17 and 22

📜 Abraham’s Promise of Many Nations: A Reconsideration of Genesis 17 and 22

Introduction

The biblical narrative of Abraham is foundational to Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Central to his story is the divine promise that he would become the “father of many nations” (Genesis 17:4–7). However, the sequence of events between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22 raises theological and logical questions.

How could God promise Abraham numerous descendants in Genesis 17, only to command him later in Genesis 22 to sacrifice his son—the very means by which that promise would be fulfilled?

A reconsideration of the chronology suggests that Genesis 17 may actually be a consequence of the events in Genesis 22, and that the promise of “many nations” is tied more closely to Ishmael than to Isaac.

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The Tension Between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22

In Genesis 17:4–7, God tells Abraham:

“As for me, this is my covenant with you: You shall be the father of a multitude of nations. … I will make you exceedingly fruitful, and I will make nations of you, and kings shall come from you.”

Yet in Genesis 22, Abraham is commanded to sacrifice his son. If this son is Isaac, as traditionally held in Judaism and Christianity, then the sequence seems illogical: Why promise descendants through Isaac in Genesis 17, only to nearly eliminate that line in Genesis 22?

From an Islamic perspective, the son in Genesis 22 is not Isaac but Ishmael, which changes the framework of interpretation.

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Genesis 22:17 as the Key Promise

After Abraham demonstrates his obedience in the near-sacrifice narrative, God reaffirms His covenant with new force:

“I will surely bless you, and I will surely multiply your descendants as the stars of heaven and as the sand that is on the seashore. And your descendants shall possess the gate of their enemies” (Genesis 22:17).

This promise comes after Abraham’s supreme test of faith. It is therefore reasonable to see Genesis 22:17 as the pivotal moment where Abraham earns the covenant of multitude. Genesis 17, in this view, is not a precursor but rather a retrospective affirmation rooted in Abraham’s proven faithfulness (Genesis 22).

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Ishmael as the Fulfillment

If Ishmael is the son in Genesis 22—as preserved in Islamic tradition—the flow of the narrative becomes more coherent. God’s promise in Genesis 22:17 directly leads to Ishmael’s great destiny, as also stated earlier in Genesis 21:18:

“I will make him a great nation.”

Thus, Abraham’s role as “father of many nations” is logically connected to Ishmael’s posterity. Through Ishmael, vast nations arise—Arab tribes and, ultimately, the universal message of Islam through Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). This interpretation removes the apparent contradiction of God’s promise followed by the command of sacrifice.

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Rethinking the Chronology

If Genesis 22 is placed before Genesis 17 chronologically, the progression becomes logical:

1. Genesis 22: Abraham proves his loyalty through the sacrifice test.
2. Genesis 22:17: God rewards Abraham with the promise of innumerable descendants.
3. Genesis 17:4–7: God formalizes this covenant, affirming Abraham as the father of many nations.

In this arrangement, according to this reconstructed chronology of events, Genesis 17 flows naturally from Genesis 22: the covenant of “many nations” becomes the direct consequence of Abraham’s demonstrated obedience, rather than an isolated or unexplained divine declaration.

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The Phrase “Only Son” as Evidence of Pre-Isaac Timing

A further textual clue strengthening this reordered chronology is the phrase “your son, your only son” in Genesis 22:2. Historically, Ishmael was Abraham’s only son for nearly fourteen years before Isaac’s birth. The expression “only son” therefore aligns perfectly with a timeframe before Isaac existed, since Abraham never again had a period in which he possessed only one son once Isaac was born. If the near-sacrifice narrative occurred after Isaac’s birth, the phrase becomes theologically and logically problematic. But if the event precedes Genesis 17—when Isaac is merely foretold—then the designation “only son” authentically describes Ishmael and reinforces the view that the Akedah/Dhabīḥ (sacrificial trial) narrative originally belonged to the Ishmael cycle, not the Isaac cycle.

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Isaac’s Name and the Logic of the Narrative

Adding to this reconsideration is the meaning of Isaac’s very name. Yitzḥaq (“he laughs” or “laughter”) reflects the joy, relief, and divine humour surrounding his unexpected birth to elderly parents. His name symbolizes delight, celebration, and the fulfillment of long-awaited hope.

This semantic field stands in tension with the notion that Isaac is the son of trial, burden, and sacrificial testing. A child whose identity is built upon laughter, promise, and joy does not naturally align with the role of the son through whom Abraham faces his greatest ordeal. By contrast, Ishmael—already associated with hardship, exile, and survival—fits more coherently within the narrative framework of testing, trial, and divine assurance.

Thus, Isaac’s name itself subtly reinforces the view that he is not the son intended in Genesis 22, further supporting an Ishmaelite-centered interpretation o

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Conclusion

A re-examination of the sequence between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22—supported by the logic of the narrative, the pivotal promise of Genesis 22:17, the historical reality that Ishmael was Abraham’s only son for many years, and the theological meaning encoded in the names of the two sons—reveals a coherent pattern pointing toward Ishmael as the son of the sacrificial trial. In this reconstructed chronology, the near-sacrifice of Ishmael becomes the decisive act of obedience that earns Abraham the covenant of “many nations.” Genesis 17 then emerges not as a prior decree but as a divine reaffirmation rooted in Abraham’s demonstrated faithfulness. 

Within this integrated framework, Ishmael—not Isaac—naturally assumes the role through whom Abraham’s covenant expands into multitudinous nations and universal significance. This reading harmonizes the textual data, resolves internal tensions, and aligns fully with the Islamic understanding of the Abrahamic story.

Does the Expansion of Islam in the Middle East Fulfill the Prophecy in Genesis?

🌟 Does the Expansion of Islam in the Middle East Fulfill the Prophecy in Genesis?

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📖 1. The Promise in Genesis

In the Book of Genesis (ch. 12, 15, 17), God promises Abraham that his descendants will inherit a specific land — described as stretching from the “River of Egypt” to the “Euphrates.”

• Abraham has two key lines of descendants:
• Isaac → leading to Jacob/Israel → the Israelites (the covenantal line).
• Ishmael → also blessed by God (Genesis 17:20), though not tied to the covenantal land promise.

✡️ In Jewish and Christian traditions, the covenantal promise of the land is linked specifically to Isaac’s descendants.

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🌴 2. The Ishmaelite Connection and Later Arabs

• Islamic tradition traces Arab descent (and much of the Muslim world) through Ishmael, Abraham’s first son.
• Genesis records that Ishmael too will become a “great nation” (Genesis 21:18).
• Thus:
• Isaac’s line = covenantal inheritance.
• Ishmael’s line = blessing and greatness in its own right.

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🌍 3. The Expansion of Islam

• In the 7th century, Islam arose in Arabia and rapidly spread across the Middle East and beyond.
• These lands overlap significantly with the territories mentioned in Genesis.

☪️ From an Islamic perspective: This spread reflects God’s promise to bless Ishmael’s descendants and make them into great nations across Abraham’s homeland.

✡️✝️ From Jewish and Christian perspectives: The covenantal inheritance remains with Israel, not Ishmael’s descendants.

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🕊️ 4. Theological Interpretations

• ✡️ Jewish perspective: The covenant and land promise are eternal for Israel alone. Islam’s rise is historical but not covenantal fulfillment.
• ✝️ Christian perspective: Views differ — some see the promise fulfilled spiritually in Christ (extended to all believers), while others expect a future literal fulfillment for Israel.
• ☪️ Islamic perspective: Muslims see themselves as the true heirs of Abraham’s faith through Ishmael and Muhammad. The expansion of Islam is seen as a realization of God’s promise of greatness.

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✅ Summary:

• ✡️/✝️ Jewish/Christian tradition: The specific land promise refers to Isaac’s descendants, not Ishmael’s.

• ☪️ Islamic tradition: The rapid growth and dominance of Ishmael’s descendants across Abraham’s homeland can be understood as a manifestation of God’s promise to Ishmael.

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Azahari Hassim

Introduction

Abraham (Ibrāhīm in Islam, Avraham in Judaism) stands as one of the most influential figures in the Abrahamic traditions. For Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, he is the patriarch of faith, the bearer of God’s covenant, and the archetype of submission to the divine will. Yet, each tradition interprets Abraham’s role in light of its own covenantal understanding.

This article explores how the Apostle Paul framed Abraham in his theology, and then compares this with Jewish and Islamic perspectives.

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Paul’s Theological Framework: Abraham as the Father of Faith ✝️

1. Justification by Faith

Paul anchors his doctrine of justification by faith in Abraham’s example:

“Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him as righteousness” (Genesis 15:6; Romans 4:3; Galatians 3:6).

For Paul, Abraham was declared righteous before the Law of Moses, proving that faith—not works of the Law—was the basis of God’s acceptance.

2. Father of All Believers

Paul universalizes Abraham’s role. Abraham is father not only of Jews (by blood) but of Gentiles who believe (Romans 4:11–12). Thus, the church becomes the true “seed of Abraham” (Galatians 3:7).

3. Christ as Fulfillment of the Promise

Paul interprets the Abrahamic promise in Christ. The promise was made to Abraham and his “seed,” whom Paul identifies as Christ (Galatians 3:16). Through Christ, both Jews and Gentiles inherit Abraham’s blessing (Galatians 3:14).

4. Abraham and the Law

By pointing out that the promise to Abraham preceded the Law by 430 years (Galatians 3:17), Paul argues that faith is prior and superior to Torah observance. Abraham’s story thus provides Paul with a theological basis to invite Gentiles into covenantal blessing without requiring circumcision or full adherence to Mosaic law.

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The Jewish Perspective: Abraham as Covenant Patriarch ✡️

In Judaism, Abraham is chiefly remembered as:

1. Father of the Covenant: God promised Abraham land, descendants, and blessing (Genesis 12, 15, 17). This covenant was sealed through circumcision, which remains the sign of Jewish identity (Genesis 17:9–14).

2. Model of Obedience: Abraham’s supreme test was the ʿAqedah (Binding of Isaac, Genesis 22). His willingness to sacrifice his son shows ultimate obedience to God’s will.

3. Lineage and Peoplehood: Abraham is seen as the founding ancestor of Israel, linking Jewish peoplehood to divine promise. Unlike Paul, Jewish tradition does not universalize Abraham’s fatherhood; it emphasizes continuity through Israel.

In rabbinic literature, Abraham is even praised for keeping the Torah before it was given (Mishnah, Kiddushin 4:14), highlighting obedience as central—not faith alone.

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The Islamic Perspective: Abraham as Prophet and Hanīf ☪️

In Islam, Abraham (Ibrāhīm) is revered as:

1. The First Muslim (Hanīf): The Qur’an depicts Abraham as neither Jew nor Christian but a “hanīf” (pure monotheist) who submitted to God (Qur’an 3:67).

2. Builder of the Kaaba (House of God): Along with his son Ishmael, Abraham raised the foundations of the Kaaba in Mecca (Qur’an 2:125–127). This ties him directly to Islamic sacred geography and universal worship.

3. Father of Prophets: Through both Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham becomes the patriarch of prophetic succession leading to Muhammad ﷺ (Qur’an 6:84–86).

4. Model of Submission: Like Judaism, Islam emphasizes Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son (understood by many Muslims as Ishmael). His act epitomizes islām (submission).

For Muslims, the covenant with Abraham is universalized in Islam: the prayer of Abraham for a prophet among his descendants (Qur’an 2:129) is fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ, making the Muslim community heirs to Abraham’s faith.

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Comparative Analysis 🔍

In Paul’s theology ✝️, righteousness is based solely on faith. Abraham’s belief in God, rather than any adherence to the Law, is what counted as righteousness, and this principle extends to all who believe in Christ, whether Jew or Gentile. By contrast, Judaism ✡️ emphasizes Abraham’s obedience and covenant fidelity as the foundation of righteousness. Abraham’s willingness to submit to God’s commands, especially in the binding of Isaac, highlights obedience as the core of covenantal life. Islam ☪️, meanwhile, frames Abraham as the model of islām (submission). His total surrender to God, exemplified in his readiness to sacrifice his firstborn son, Ishmael, defines him as the archetypal Muslim.

For Paul ✝️, circumcision is no longer the covenant’s defining sign; instead, faith in Christ has replaced it as the marker of belonging to God’s people. Judaism ✡️, however, continues to uphold circumcision (Brit Milah) as the physical and perpetual sign of Abraham’s covenant with God. In Islam ☪️, the covenantal sign is not confined to one ritual, but expressed through the wider practices of monotheism, prayer, Hajj, and submission that connect believers to Abraham’s legacy.

Paul ✝️ identifies the true “seed of Abraham” as Christ and all who belong to him by faith. Jewish tradition ✡️, by contrast, views the seed of Abraham primarily in terms of biological descent through Israel. Islam ☪️ expands the lineage to include descendants of both Ishmael and Isaac, with the covenant fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ and the community of Islam.

Finally, each tradition interprets the story of Abraham’s sacrifice differently. For Paul ✝️, the binding of Isaac foreshadows the ultimate sacrifice of Christ, pointing to salvation through faith. In Judaism ✡️, the binding of Isaac is a supreme test of obedience and covenant loyalty. In Islam ☪️, the sacrifice is understood by many to involve Ishmael, and it symbolizes total submission to God’s will.

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Conclusion

Abraham emerges as a shared yet contested figure across the Abrahamic faiths. For Paul, he is the prototype of faith, proving that justification is by trust apart from the Law, and serving as the spiritual ancestor of Jews and Gentiles in Christ. For Judaism, he is the covenant patriarch whose obedience and lineage define Israel’s unique identity. For Islam, he is the pure monotheist, prophet, and builder of the Kaaba (House of God), whose legacy culminates in Islam as the universal faith.

Thus, Abraham becomes a theological bridge across traditions—yet also a point of divergence where each faith community defines its covenantal identity.

Analyze Jesus and Muhammad in Abrahamic faiths through the concept of “Seed” in Genesis 22:18

Certain individuals argue that the reference to the “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, does not pertain to Jesus due to his words in Matthew 15, verse 24. Instead, they point to Muhammad based on Surah 21, verse 107. How is their argument articulated?

The argument that the “seed” mentioned in Genesis 22, verse 18, refers to Muhammad rather than Jesus is articulated by contrasting biblical and Quranic texts. Here’s how the argument is structured:

Genesis 22, verse 18, states:

“And through your offspring all nations of the earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed My voice”.

The Hebrew word used for “offspring” or “seed” is “zera”, which can be a collective singular noun, implying it could refer to a single individual or a group.

In Matthew 15, verse 24, Jesus says:

“I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel”.

This statement is interpreted by some to mean that Jesus’ mission was primarily focused on the Israelites and not on all nations directly. This interpretation is used to argue that Jesus was not the fulfillment of the promise in Genesis 22, verse 18, which speaks of a blessing to “all nations”.

Surah 21, verse 107 of the Quran states:

“And We have not sent you, [O Muhammad], except as a mercy to the worlds”.

This verse is interpreted to mean that Muhammad’s mission was universal, extending to all of humanity, which aligns with the promise in Genesis 22, verse 18, about blessing all nations.

The proponents of this view argue that since Jesus explicitly stated his mission was to the Israelites, he does not fulfill the universal aspect of the blessing promised in Genesis 22, verse 18.

In contrast, Muhammad is described in the Quran as a mercy to all worlds, which they believe aligns more closely with the promise of a blessing to all nations. Therefore, they conclude that the “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, refers to Muhammad rather than Jesus.

This argument hinges on the interpretation of Jesus’ mission scope in the New Testament and the universal mission attributed to Muhammad in the Quran.

There are some scholars who believe the prophethood of Muhammad is related to Abraham’s near sacrifice of Ishmael. Therefore, Muslims commemorate Eid ul-Adha or the Feast of Sacrifice. How is this argument articulated?

The argument that the prophethood of Muhammad is related to Abraham’s near sacrifice of Ishmael is based on the Islamic tradition that Abraham was commanded by God to sacrifice his son Ishmael, not Isaac as mentioned in the Bible.

This event is seen as a test of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God, and Ishmael’s willingness to be sacrificed is seen as a demonstration of his own faith and submission to God’s will.

In Islamic theology, this event is considered a precursor to the prophethood of Muhammad, who is seen as a descendant of Ishmael. The story of Abraham’s sacrifice is commemorated by Muslims during the Eid al-Adha, or the Feast of Sacrifice, which is one of the most important Islamic holidays.

The argument is articulated as follows:

1. Abraham was commanded by God to sacrifice his son Ishmael, as mentioned in the Quran (Surah 37: 100 to 108).

2. Ishmael was willing to be sacrificed, demonstrating his faith and submission to God’s will.

3. This event is seen as a test of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God.

4. The prophethood of Muhammad is related to this event, as he is a descendant of Ishmael.

5. The story of Abraham’s sacrifice is commemorated by Muslims during the Eid al-Adha, which is a celebration of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God.

Therefore, the prophethood of Muhammad is seen as a continuation of the legacy of Abraham and Ishmael, and the story of Abraham’s sacrifice is seen as a precursor to the prophethood of Muhammad.

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What is Eid al-Adha?

Eid al-Adha, also known as the “Festival of Sacrifice,” is one of the most significant Islamic holidays. It commemorates the willingness of Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Isma’il (Ishmael) as an act of obedience to God.

According to Islamic tradition, just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, God provided a lamb to sacrifice instead.

The holiday is marked by various rituals and traditions, including:

1. Prayer: Special prayers are held in congregation, usually at a mosque or an open field.

2. Sacrifice: Families who can afford it will sacrifice an animal, typically a sheep, goat, cow, or camel. The meat is then distributed among family, friends, and those in need.

3. Charity: Emphasizing the importance of helping others, Muslims give to charity and ensure that everyone can partake in the celebration.

4. Gatherings and Feasts: Families and communities come together to share meals, celebrate, and enjoy each other’s company.

Eid al-Adha is celebrated on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar, and it coincides with the pilgrimage to Mecca known as Hajj. Muslims who are performing Hajj experience this holiday in a particularly special way.

The Apostle Paul and the people of Kedar

Paul claimed that he was an apostle to the Gentiles. What was his connection to the people of Kedar, who were Gentiles and would enter God’s fold as predicted in Isaiah 42 verse 11 and Isaiah 60 verse 7? Kedar was the son of Ishmael, the ancestor of the Arab people.

This is a very interesting question. Paul was an apostle to the Gentiles, meaning that he preached the gospel of Jesus Christ to the non-Jewish nations. He traveled extensively throughout the Roman Empire, visiting places such as Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and Rome. He also wrote many letters to the churches he founded or visited, which are part of the New Testament.
While Paul’s ministry was mainly directed towards the Gentiles in various regions, there is no specific mention or connection between Paul and the people of Kedar in the New Testament.

The people of Kedar were a nomadic tribe of Arabs, descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. They are mentioned several times in the Old Testament as examples of the distant nations that would worship the true God. Isaiah 42 verse 11 and Isaiah 60 verse 7 are two of the prophecies that foretell the inclusion of the people of Kedar in God’s salvation plan.

The references to Kedar in Isaiah are prophecies that speak about the inclusion of Gentiles into God’s fold. These prophecies imply that people from various nations, including the descendants of Kedar, would come to worship and acknowledge God.

Although Paul’s mission was to bring the message of salvation to the Gentiles, his primary interactions were with the Greco-Roman world rather than specific Arab or Ishmaelite communities. However, there is no specific mention of Paul having a direct connection to the people of Kedar mentioned in those specific verses of Isaiah.

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Azahari Hassim

Ishmael in Genesis 21: Baby vs. Mocking Teenager

A Case for Interpolation in Genesis 21:9–10

The Core Contradiction

Genesis 21 contains two irreconcilable portrayals of Ishmael:

• Genesis 21:14–20: Ishmael is depicted as a helpless child—carried on Hagar’s shoulder, laid under a bush, and rescued by an angel. Verse 20 reinforces this image: “And God was with the boy, and he grew.” If Ishmael had already been a teenager or older, it would not have been necessary to mention his growth..

• Genesis 21:9–10: Ishmael appears as a teenager “mocking” Isaac, prompting Sarah to demand his expulsion to secure Isaac’s inheritance.

But according to Genesis 16:16 and 21:5, Ishmael was 16–17 years old at this point. The surrounding verses (vv. 14–20), however, treat him as if he were an infant. This is not a stylistic flourish but a direct contradiction in age and behavior within the same episode.

The Textual Inconsistency

The contradiction is sharp:

• Genesis 21:14–20 + 21:20 → Ishmael is a small boy growing up under God’s care.

• Genesis 21:9–10 → Ishmael is a mocking adolescent, a threat to Isaac’s status.

This inconsistency strongly suggests that Genesis 21 combines two traditions or has been redacted with an interpolation to reshape the story.

Why 21:9–10 is Interpolation

Several factors converge:

1. Contradictory portrayals: helpless child vs. mocking teenager.

2. Abrupt insertion: v. 9 introduces a sudden and unexplained motive.

3. Theological shaping: vv. 9–10 are designed to exclude Ishmael from inheritance.

4. Textual fluidity: the LXX (Septuagint) shows this very section was unstable.

5. Narrative flow without vv. 9–10: the story reads smoothly if Sarah’s demand is absent—Abraham provides, Hagar departs, baby Ishmael nearly dies, God rescues, Ishmael grows.

Hebrew Note

In Genesis 21:14, the Hebrew says:

וַיִּתֵּ֣ן אֶל־הָגָ֑ר שָׂ֣ם עַל־שִׁכְמָ֔הּ וְאֶת־הַיֶּ֖לֶד

“He put [the bread and water] on her shoulder, and [he gave her] the child.”

Some translations smooth this as if Abraham “placed the child on her shoulder,” reinforcing the infant image. Others take it as “gave her the child,” but the syntax still suggests dependence and smallness—clashing with the teenager portrayal of vv. 9–10.

The Islamic Resonance

The “helpless child” imagery in Genesis 21 aligns closely with the Islamic tradition, in which Abraham leaves Hagar and infant Ishmael in the valley of Makkah, where God miraculously provides water (the well of Zamzam). This suggests that the older stratum of the story remembered Ishmael as a baby. The later interpolation (vv. 9–10) reframes him as a rival heir to justify his expulsion and Isaac’s primacy.

Conclusion

Genesis 21 preserves two incompatible portrayals of Ishmael: one as a baby in need of rescue, another as a mocking teenager. The tension is best explained by redactional activity, with Genesis 21:9–10 functioning as an interpolation to serve Israel’s covenantal theology. Without those verses, the passage regains coherence and aligns with an earlier tradition—one that resonates strongly with the Islamic account of Ishmael’s infancy.

Abraham’s Near Sacrifice: Why No Torah Commemoration?

The story of Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son stands as one of the most dramatic and defining episodes in the shared heritage of the Abrahamic faiths. Known in Jewish tradition as the Akedah (“the binding”), this test of obedience demonstrates Abraham’s total submission to God. Yet one striking question remains: why does the Torah prescribe no festival or ritual to commemorate such a pivotal event, even though it ordains commemorations for other moments of salvation and faith?

📖 Torah’s Silence

The book of Genesis describes the scene in stark terms:

“Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering…” (Genesis 22:2)

The text names Isaac as the intended son. Yet, for all its significance, the Torah gives no command to remember this event in the ritual life of Israel. By contrast, the Torah carefully prescribes detailed festivals for other acts of divine deliverance: Passover recalls the Exodus, Shavuot remembers the giving of the Law, and Sukkot marks the wilderness wanderings. In the case of the Akedah, however, silence reigns.

🕋 Islam’s Commemoration

Islam preserves the story in living ritual through the festival of Eid al-Adha. Each year, millions of Muslims worldwide commemorate Abraham’s test of faith with practices that echo the original event:
• Qurbani (sacrifice of livestock) recalls God’s substitution of a ram.
• Prayers unite the community in remembrance.
• Charity ensures that the poor share in the meat.
• Universality makes the commemoration a global act of worship.

In Islamic tradition, the son who was nearly sacrificed is identified as Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn. Thus, what Judaism remembers only in narrative, Islam enshrines in ritual and practice.

❓ The Scholarly Puzzle

This divergence raises a significant puzzle: why would Judaism, with its rich festival calendar, omit commemoration of such a defining story? If Isaac was truly the son placed upon the altar, then surely his survival—no less than the Exodus—warrants annual remembrance.

Some scholars suggest that Genesis 22:2 may have undergone redaction, with the name “Isaac” inserted in place of “Ishmael.” If the original tradition centered on Ishmael, the absence of Jewish ritual commemoration begins to make sense: a story once attached to Abraham’s firstborn was later reshaped, and silence became the safest theological option.

🏺 Historical-Critical Insight

From a historical-critical perspective, the silence of the Torah may itself be evidence of earlier memories. It is possible that the original story celebrated Ishmael as the son of sacrifice, a view preserved in Islamic tradition. Later scribes, seeking to reinforce Israel’s covenantal identity through Isaac, may have shifted the narrative. The result was a text that names Isaac, but a ritual calendar that refuses to enshrine the memory—reflecting the unease of a rewritten tradition.

🔍 Comparative Framework

The contrast between traditions can be summarized as follows:
• Judaism → The Torah recounts the story but prescribes no festival. The Akedah is remembered in prayer and commentary, but not ritually enacted.
• Islam → The near sacrifice is ritually commemorated through Eid al-Adha, making it a central act of worship and identity.
• Scholarship → The absence of Jewish commemoration is itself a clue, pointing to possible textual evolution and redaction.

🌟 Conclusion

The silence of the Torah is as meaningful as its words.
• For Judaism, the story of Abraham’s test lives in memory but not in ritual practice.
• For Islam, it is a central, annual commemoration, binding the global community in submission to God’s will.
• For scholars, the absence of Torah commemoration hints at deeper layers of textual evolution and theological rewriting.

In the end, the children of Abraham inherited the same story but carried it forward in different ways—Judaism with silence, Islam with celebration. This divergence reflects not only theological difference, but also the complex history of how sacred texts were remembered, reshaped, and lived.

The Abrahamic and Sinai Covenants: An Islamic Perspective on Sacred Continuity and Relics

In the comparative theology of Abrahamic religions, the concept of divine covenants occupies a central role. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all trace their spiritual lineage to the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim عليه السلام), but they diverge in their understanding of which covenant is binding and through whom it continues. 

One unique Islamic perspective highlights the theological and symbolic significance of sacred relics and the distinction between the Abrahamic Covenant and the Sinai (Mosaic) Covenant. This article explores how Islamic scholars frame the continuity of divine promise, drawing attention to the absence of Abrahamic relics in Jewish tradition and the centrality of Abrahamic symbolism in Islamic rites.

1. Two Covenants: Abrahamic and Sinai

The Abrahamic Covenant, as recorded in both the Bible and Qur’an, was made between God and Abraham, promising:

• A multitude of descendants

• A blessed lineage

• A divinely appointed land

In contrast, the Sinai Covenant—or Mosaic Covenant—was established generations later, between God and the Israelites through Moses at Mount Sinai. This covenant was heavily centered on legal ordinances, ritual purity, and national identity.

Islamic scholars underscore this distinction, arguing that while the Sinai Covenant was specific to the Israelites and conditional upon their obedience, the Abrahamic Covenant is universal, unconditional, and eternal, forming the foundation of Islamic monotheism.

2. Islamic Continuity: Inheriting the Abrahamic Legacy

From an Islamic theological standpoint, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is seen as a direct descendant of Abraham through his firstborn son Ishmael. This lineage is critical in Islamic thought, as it places Muhammad ﷺ and the Muslim ummah within the direct stream of Abrahamic blessing and covenantal responsibility.

Islam views itself not as a new religion, but as the revival and perfection of the original Abrahamic faith. This perspective is reinforced by the Qur’an’s emphasis on following “the religion of Abraham, the upright” (Qur’an 3:95), and by prophetic traditions affirming the the reconstruction of the House of God (Kaaba) by Abraham and Ishmael.

3. The Role of Sacred Relics

A distinctive element of the Islamic argument involves the presence or absence of Abrahamic relics:

In Islam, the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca is considered the house built by Abraham and Ishmael (Qur’an 2:125–127), accompanied by the Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad) and the Station of Abraham (Maqam Ibrahim). These physical sites serve as living relics of the Abrahamic legacy, venerated by over a billion Muslims worldwide.

In Judaism, no physical relic directly associated with Abraham has been preserved. The most significant ancient artifact, the Ark of the Covenant, belongs to the Mosaic era and is tied to the Sinai Covenant, not Abraham. Moreover, it was lost during the destruction of the First Temple.

Islamic scholars point to this contrast to suggest that the direct covenantal heritage of Abraham has been preserved in Islam, not in Judaism. The absence of relics connected to Abraham in Jewish tradition is interpreted by some as symbolic of a rupture in the transmission of his legacy.

4. The Ark of the Covenant: Significance and Loss

The Ark of the Covenant remains an iconic symbol in Jewish history. It was said to contain the tablets of the Law (Torah) and represented the divine presence among the Israelites. However, from an Islamic perspective, the Ark is not seen as an Abrahamic relic but rather as a Mosaic artifact.

Its eventual loss during the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple is often viewed by Islamic scholars as a symbolic termination of the Sinai Covenant, marking the end of that specific historical phase of divine interaction.

5. Universality of the Abrahamic Covenant in Islam

A key theme in Islamic theology is the universality of the Abrahamic Covenant. Unlike the Sinai Covenant, which was exclusively for the Children of Israel, the Abrahamic Covenant—according to Islamic understanding—was meant for all peoples who follow the monotheistic path of submission to God (Islam).

This universalism is enshrined in the Qur’an (Surah 22:78):

“It is He who has named you Muslims before and in this [revelation], that the Messenger may be a witness over you and you may be witnesses over mankind.”

Thus, Islam positions itself as the final and universal expression of the Abrahamic mission, encompassing all of humanity beyond ethnic or tribal lines.

6. Supersession and Theological Fulfillment

While Islam respects the prophets of Judaism and Christianity, many Islamic scholars adopt a form of theological supersessionism: the idea that Islam, as revealed to Muhammad ﷺ, completes and supersedes previous revelations. This includes both the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.

According to this view, the Qur’an is the final testament, and the Muslim community (ummah) is the rightful heir to Abraham’s spiritual legacy, fulfilling his vision of pure monotheism (tawḥīd) untainted by tribal exclusivism or theological alteration.

Conclusion

The Islamic view on the Abrahamic and Sinai covenants is deeply rooted in both theological reasoning and historical symbolism. By emphasizing the continuity of Abrahamic rites, the preservation of sacred relics, and the universal scope of its message, Islam asserts itself as the true fulfillment of the covenant established with Abraham. 

The absence of equivalent Abrahamic relics in Jewish tradition and the eventual disappearance of the Ark are seen not as mere historical events, but as spiritual markers—signifying a shift from the tribal covenant of Sinai to the universal mission embodied by Islam.

While these perspectives are uniquely Islamic and may not be shared by Jewish or Christian theology, they contribute meaningfully to the broader discourse on how each faith understands its relationship with Abraham, the friend of God.

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Azahari Hassim

1. Why Islamic Scholars Believe the Torah Was Altered Regarding Ishmael

The Qur’an accuses some Jewish scribes of altering scripture:

“Do you hope they will believe you, when some of them used to hear the words of God then distort them after they had understood them, knowingly?” (Qur’an 2:75)

“So woe to those who write the Book with their own hands and then say, ‘This is from God,’ to exchange it for a small price.” (Qur’an 2:79)

This doctrine of taḥrīf (distortion) is applied by Muslim exegetes to the Abrahamic covenant narratives. They argue that the Torah originally gave Ishmael covenantal prominence, but Jewish scribes altered the text to place Isaac in that role for political and ethnic reasons:

• Ethnic exclusivity: Restricting the covenant to Isaac made it Israel’s exclusive inheritance.

• Religious authority: Elevating Isaac justified Israel’s claim to be God’s sole chosen people.

• Arab-Israelite rivalry: Excluding Ishmael delegitimized the Ishmaelites (later Arabs) as covenantal heirs.

⸻

2. Islamic Reasons Supporting Ishmael’s Role

a. Qur’anic Testimony

• Universal covenant: Abraham was promised leadership for his descendants, but God limited it to the righteous, not by bloodline (Qur’an 2:124). Ishmael qualifies.

• The Sacrifice Narrative: Qur’an 37:101–112 implies the sacrificed son was Ishmael, since Isaac’s birth is mentioned after the sacrifice story.

• Kaaba (House of God) and prayer for Ishmael’s descendants: Abraham and Ishmael built the Kaaba and prayed for a messenger from their line (Qur’an 2:127–129) — fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ.

• Praise for Ishmael: The Qur’an honors Ishmael as a prophet and covenant-keeper (Qur’an 19:54–55).

b. Historical logic

• Firstborn son: By ancient Near Eastern custom, Ishmael (the firstborn) should have been covenantal heir unless disqualified — but the Bible itself shows God blessing him greatly (Genesis 17:20).

• Circumcision: Ishmael was circumcised at the age of 13, on the same day as his father Abraham, and before Isaac was born (Genesis 17:23–25). This means that Ishmael entered the covenant earlier than Isaac. Therefore, the theological importance of Isaac’s circumcision is similar to that of the other members of Abraham’s household.

• Sacrificial test: Islam preserves Ishmael’s central role in the great test of faith, commemorated annually at Eid al-Adha. Judaism and Christianity, in contrast, have no liturgical commemoration of Isaac’s binding (Akedah), which Muslims see as a sign of textual alteration.

⸻

3. Biblical Reasons that Support the Islamic Assertion

Even within the Bible, there are tensions and clues that suggest Ishmael’s role was more significant than later scribes allowed:

1. Ishmael is blessed to become a “great nation”

• “As for Ishmael, I have heard you. I will surely bless him; I will make him fruitful and will greatly increase his numbers. He will be the father of twelve rulers, and I will make him into a great nation.” (Genesis 17:20)

This blessing closely parallels covenantal promises given to Isaac.

2. Circumcision before Isaac

• Genesis 17:23–25 explicitly records Ishmael’s circumcision as covenantal sign, before Isaac’s birth. This raises the question: why would the covenant sign be given to one excluded from it?

3. Ambiguity of the Sacrifice Story

• In Genesis 22:2, Isaac is named as the son to be sacrificed. But Muslim scholars argue this insertion is suspicious because:

• Earlier verses (Genesis 22:1) simply say “your son, your only son” — which could only have referred to Ishmael at the time, since Isaac wasn’t born until later.

• The phrase “your only son” makes no sense if Isaac is meant, because Ishmael was alive. Thus, the text seems edited.

4. No Jewish Festival for the Binding

• Despite its centrality, Judaism has no feast commemorating Isaac’s binding, whereas Islam preserves its memory through Eid al-Adha. This absence suggests the Isaac-centered version was secondary.

5. Arab traditions of Abraham and Ishmael

• Pre-Islamic Arabs preserved traditions of Abraham and Ishmael at the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca. This continuity indicates Ishmael’s role was widely remembered outside of Jewish editing.

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4. Ishmael as a Baby: A Biblical Contradiction

The book of Genesis presents Ishmael in a way that appears inconsistent with the chronological details of the narrative:

 • Genesis 21:9–10: Sarah sees “the son of Hagar” and demands that Abraham “cast out” the slave woman and her son. Ishmael would have been approximately 16 or 17 years old at this point — not a small child.

• Genesis 21:14–18: Abraham sends Hagar away with bread and water, placing the child on her shoulder as though he were an infant. Later, Hagar lays Ishmael under a bush, unable to watch him die of thirst, until an angel instructs her to “lift the boy up.”

• Genesis 21:20: The text continues, “And God was with the boy as he grew,” which further suggests an image of early childhood.

However, according to the timeline (Genesis 16:16; 21:5), Ishmael would have been approximately 16–17 years old at this stage. The portrayal of him as a helpless baby, therefore, introduces a notable tension within the biblical narrative.

Interestingly, this depiction parallels the Islamic account, which holds that Ishmael was still an infant when Hagar left Abraham’s household and settled in the valley of Makkah, where God provided for them. From this perspective, the biblical image of Ishmael as a young child—despite its chronological inconsistencies—can be seen as indirectly reinforcing the Islamic tradition that situates his departure during infancy, long before the birth of Isaac.

Furthermore, some scholars view Genesis 21:9–10, where Sarah insists on the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael, as a later editorial addition. This insertion may have been intended to emphasize Isaac as the legitimate covenant heir and to reduce Ishmael’s significance, thereby reinforcing Israel’s unique identity within the biblical narrative.

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Conclusion

The ambiguous wording of the sacrifice narrative—where the phrase “your son, your only son” could only have referred to Ishmael at that time—and the fact that Ishmael was circumcised alongside Abraham before Isaac’s birth, strongly indicate his covenantal significance. These elements suggest that Ishmael was indeed a rightful heir of the Abrahamic covenant, but the text was later shaped to elevate Isaac while diminishing Ishmael’s original role.

The contradictions within Genesis — portraying Ishmael as both a teenager by chronology and as a helpless baby by narrative — point to possible textual reshaping intended to diminish his stature in favor of Isaac. At the same time, this very imagery, whether intentional or not, indirectly supports the Islamic belief that Ishmael was in fact an infant when he left Abraham’s household with Hagar. 

Islam affirms that Ishmael was never rejected. Instead, he was a prophet, covenant-bearer, and forefather of Muhammad ﷺ. Through him, the Abrahamic covenant found its universal fulfillment, not confined to one lineage but extending to all nations through Muhammad and the message of Islam.

Abraham’s Near Sacrifice: Why No Torah Commemoration?

The story of Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son stands as one of the most dramatic and defining episodes in the shared heritage of the Abrahamic faiths. Known in Jewish tradition as the Akedah (“the binding”), this test of obedience demonstrates Abraham’s total submission to God. Yet one striking question remains: why does the Torah prescribe no festival or ritual to commemorate such a pivotal event, even though it ordains commemorations for other moments of salvation and faith?

⸻

📖 Torah’s Silence

The book of Genesis describes the scene in stark terms:

“Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering…” (Genesis 22:2)

The text names Isaac as the intended son. Yet, for all its significance, the Torah gives no command to remember this event in the ritual life of Israel. By contrast, the Torah carefully prescribes detailed festivals for other acts of divine deliverance: Passover recalls the Exodus, Shavuot remembers the giving of the Law, and Sukkot marks the wilderness wanderings. In the case of the Akedah, however, silence reigns.

⸻

🕋 Islam’s Commemoration

Islam preserves the story in living ritual through the festival of Eid al-Adha. Each year, millions of Muslims worldwide commemorate Abraham’s test of faith with practices that echo the original event:

• Qurbani (sacrifice of livestock) recalls God’s substitution of a ram.

• Prayers unite the community in remembrance.

• Charity ensures that the poor share in the meat.

• Universality makes the commemoration a global act of worship.

In Islamic tradition, the son who was nearly sacrificed is identified as Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn. Thus, what Judaism remembers only in narrative, Islam enshrines in ritual and practice.

⸻

❓ The Scholarly Puzzle

This divergence raises a significant puzzle: why would Judaism, with its rich festival calendar, omit commemoration of such a defining story? If Isaac was truly the son placed upon the altar, then surely his survival—no less than the Exodus—warrants annual remembrance.

Some scholars suggest that Genesis 22:2 may have undergone redaction, with the name “Isaac” inserted in place of “Ishmael.” If the original tradition centered on Ishmael, the absence of Jewish ritual commemoration begins to make sense: a story once attached to Abraham’s firstborn was later reshaped, and silence became the safest theological option.

⸻

🏺 Historical-Critical Insight

From a historical-critical perspective, the silence of the Torah may itself be evidence of earlier memories. It is possible that the original story celebrated Ishmael as the son of sacrifice, a view preserved in Islamic tradition. Later scribes, seeking to reinforce Israel’s covenantal identity through Isaac, may have shifted the narrative. The result was a text that names Isaac, but a ritual calendar that refuses to enshrine the memory—reflecting the unease of a rewritten tradition.

⸻

🔍 Comparative Framework

The contrast between traditions can be summarized as follows:

• Judaism → The Torah recounts the story but prescribes no festival. The Akedah is remembered in prayer and commentary, but not ritually enacted.

• Islam → The near sacrifice is ritually commemorated through Eid al-Adha, making it a central act of worship and identity.

• Scholarship → The absence of Jewish commemoration is itself a clue, pointing to possible textual evolution and redaction.

⸻

🌟 Conclusion

The silence of the Torah is as meaningful as its words.

• For Judaism, the story of Abraham’s test lives in memory but not in ritual practice.

• For Islam, it is a central, annual commemoration, binding the global community in submission to God’s will.

• For scholars, the absence of Torah commemoration hints at deeper layers of textual evolution and theological rewriting.

In the end, the children of Abraham inherited the same story but carried it forward in different ways—Judaism with silence, Islam with celebration. This divergence reflects not only theological difference, but also the complex history of how sacred texts were remembered, reshaped, and lived.

Isaac: A Son of Joy, Not Sacrifice — Rethinking the Identity of the Sacrificial Son

The story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son is one of the most profound and contested episodes in the Abrahamic traditions. While the Hebrew Bible clearly names Isaac as the intended sacrifice, Islamic tradition maintains that it was Ishmael. In recent years, some scholars and believers have revisited the linguistic, theological, and contextual clues surrounding the narrative. A compelling argument centers around the meaning and role of Isaac’s name, suggesting that Isaac’s very identity may indicate he was never meant to be the sacrificial son.

The Meaning of Isaac’s Name

The name Isaac (Hebrew: Yitzḥaq, meaning “he will laugh” or “laughter”) is deeply tied to the emotional response of Abraham and Sarah upon hearing the divine promise that they would have a child in their old age (Genesis 17:17, 18:12). This laughter reflects astonishment, joy, and divine mercy—emphasizing the miraculous and comforting nature of Isaac’s birth. The child represents the culmination of a divine promise and the joy of old age, rather than a figure marked for trial and sacrifice.

Isaac as a Symbol of Fulfillment and Closure

From this perspective, Isaac is seen not as a son of trial, but as a gift of consolation—the final chapter in the long journey of Abraham and Sarah. His birth occurs after decades of wandering, waiting, and testing. His role in the narrative is one of continuation, legacy, and divine reward, not intense sacrifice. The Biblical text even notes that Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah 90 when Isaac was born—a clear emphasis on grace and joy rather than hardship and testing.

Ishmael as the Son of Trial

In contrast, Ishmael—Abraham’s firstborn by Hagar—is born amid tension, struggle, and uncertainty. According to both Islamic and Biblical narratives, he and his mother were sent away into the wilderness. In the Islamic tradition, this is framed as part of a divine plan, with Ishmael becoming the ancestor of a great nation and a prophet in his own right. Importantly, Islamic scripture (Qur’an 37:99–113) narrates the near-sacrifice without naming the son, but contextual clues suggest it refers to Ishmael, since the announcement of Isaac’s birth follows after the sacrifice episode.

Linguistic and Narrative Inference

The sequence of events in the Qur’an is particularly telling:

“So We gave him the good news of a forbearing son… And when he reached the age of striving, he said: ‘O my son! I have seen in a dream that I am sacrificing you…’” (Qur’an 37:101–102)

This is followed later by:

“And We gave him good news of Isaac, a prophet from among the righteous.” (Qur’an 37:112)

This sequence supports the interpretation that the son being sacrificed was not Isaac, but someone before him—namely, Ishmael. Moreover, this interpretation aligns with a thematic reading: Ishmael is the son through whom Abraham is first tested, while Isaac is the son through whom Abraham is blessed.

Pre-Islamic Arab Tradition

Arab oral traditions preceding Islam also reflect the belief that Ishmael was the son nearly sacrificed. This belief was deeply rooted in the collective memory of the Arab people and manifested in religious rituals such as Eid al-Adha and the Sa’i—the reenactment of Hagar’s search for water. These practices are tied to Ishmael, not Isaac, further reinforcing his role as the son of trial.

Conclusion

While the Biblical tradition names Isaac as the sacrificial son, both linguistic and theological reflections open space for rethinking this assumption. The joyful connotation of Isaac’s name, the sequence of Qur’anic verses, and longstanding Arab traditions all support the idea that Isaac was not the son marked for sacrifice, but rather a son of comfort and reward. 

In contrast, Ishmael bears the marks of trial, testing, and divine submission—characteristics that align more directly with the sacrificial narrative. This perspective invites a deeper, more nuanced understanding of Abraham’s legacy and the roles of his two sons in the shared heritage of monotheism.

The Abrahamic and Sinai Covenants: An Islamic Perspective on Sacred Continuity and Relics

In the comparative theology of Abrahamic religions, the concept of divine covenants occupies a central role. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all trace their spiritual lineage to the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim عليه السلام), but they diverge in their understanding of which covenant is binding and through whom it continues. 

One unique Islamic perspective highlights the theological and symbolic significance of sacred relics and the distinction between the Abrahamic Covenant and the Sinai (Mosaic) Covenant. This article explores how Islamic scholars frame the continuity of divine promise, drawing attention to the absence of Abrahamic relics in Jewish tradition and the centrality of Abrahamic symbolism in Islamic rites.

1. Two Covenants: Abrahamic and Sinai

The Abrahamic Covenant, as recorded in both the Bible and Qur’an, was made between God and Abraham, promising:

• A multitude of descendants

• A blessed lineage

• A divinely appointed land

In contrast, the Sinai Covenant—or Mosaic Covenant—was established generations later, between God and the Israelites through Moses at Mount Sinai. This covenant was heavily centered on legal ordinances, ritual purity, and national identity.

Islamic scholars underscore this distinction, arguing that while the Sinai Covenant was specific to the Israelites and conditional upon their obedience, the Abrahamic Covenant is universal, unconditional, and eternal, forming the foundation of Islamic monotheism.

2. Islamic Continuity: Inheriting the Abrahamic Legacy

From an Islamic theological standpoint, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is seen as a direct descendant of Abraham through his firstborn son Ishmael. This lineage is critical in Islamic thought, as it places Muhammad ﷺ and the Muslim ummah within the direct stream of Abrahamic blessing and covenantal responsibility.

Islam views itself not as a new religion, but as the revival and perfection of the original Abrahamic faith. This perspective is reinforced by the Qur’an’s emphasis on following “the religion of Abraham, the upright” (Qur’an 3:95), and by prophetic traditions affirming the the reconstruction of the House of God (Kaaba) by Abraham and Ishmael.

3. The Role of Sacred Relics

A distinctive element of the Islamic argument involves the presence or absence of Abrahamic relics:

In Islam, the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca is considered the house built by Abraham and Ishmael (Qur’an 2:125–127), accompanied by the Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad) and the Station of Abraham (Maqam Ibrahim). These physical sites serve as living relics of the Abrahamic legacy, venerated by over a billion Muslims worldwide.

In Judaism, no physical relic directly associated with Abraham has been preserved. The most significant ancient artifact, the Ark of the Covenant, belongs to the Mosaic era and is tied to the Sinai Covenant, not Abraham. Moreover, it was lost during the destruction of the First Temple.

Islamic scholars point to this contrast to suggest that the direct covenantal heritage of Abraham has been preserved in Islam, not in Judaism. The absence of relics connected to Abraham in Jewish tradition is interpreted by some as symbolic of a rupture in the transmission of his legacy.

4. The Ark of the Covenant: Significance and Loss

The Ark of the Covenant remains an iconic symbol in Jewish history. It was said to contain the tablets of the Law (Torah) and represented the divine presence among the Israelites. However, from an Islamic perspective, the Ark is not seen as an Abrahamic relic but rather as a Mosaic artifact.

Its eventual loss during the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple is often viewed by Islamic scholars as a symbolic termination of the Sinai Covenant, marking the end of that specific historical phase of divine interaction.

5. Universality of the Abrahamic Covenant in Islam

A key theme in Islamic theology is the universality of the Abrahamic Covenant. Unlike the Sinai Covenant, which was exclusively for the Children of Israel, the Abrahamic Covenant—according to Islamic understanding—was meant for all peoples who follow the monotheistic path of submission to God (Islam).

This universalism is enshrined in the Qur’an (Surah 22:78):

“It is He who has named you Muslims before and in this [revelation], that the Messenger may be a witness over you and you may be witnesses over mankind.”

Thus, Islam positions itself as the final and universal expression of the Abrahamic mission, encompassing all of humanity beyond ethnic or tribal lines.

6. Supersession and Theological Fulfillment

While Islam respects the prophets of Judaism and Christianity, many Islamic scholars adopt a form of theological supersessionism: the idea that Islam, as revealed to Muhammad ﷺ, completes and supersedes previous revelations. This includes both the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.

According to this view, the Qur’an is the final testament, and the Muslim community (ummah) is the rightful heir to Abraham’s spiritual legacy, fulfilling his vision of pure monotheism (tawḥīd) untainted by tribal exclusivism or theological alteration.

Conclusion

The Islamic view on the Abrahamic and Sinai covenants is deeply rooted in both theological reasoning and historical symbolism. By emphasizing the continuity of Abrahamic rites, the preservation of sacred relics, and the universal scope of its message, Islam asserts itself as the true fulfillment of the covenant established with Abraham. 

The absence of equivalent Abrahamic relics in Jewish tradition and the eventual disappearance of the Ark are seen not as mere historical events, but as spiritual markers—signifying a shift from the tribal covenant of Sinai to the universal mission embodied by Islam.

While these perspectives are uniquely Islamic and may not be shared by Jewish or Christian theology, they contribute meaningfully to the broader discourse on how each faith understands its relationship with Abraham, the friend of God.

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Azahari Hassim

The story of Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son stands as one of the most dramatic and defining episodes in the shared heritage of the Abrahamic faiths. Known in Jewish tradition as the Akedah (“the binding”), this test of obedience demonstrates Abraham’s total submission to God. Yet one striking question remains: why does the Torah prescribe no festival or ritual to commemorate such a pivotal event, even though it ordains commemorations for other moments of salvation and faith?

📖 Torah’s Silence

The book of Genesis describes the scene in stark terms:

“Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering…” (Genesis 22:2)

The text names Isaac as the intended son. Yet, for all its significance, the Torah gives no command to remember this event in the ritual life of Israel. By contrast, the Torah carefully prescribes detailed festivals for other acts of divine deliverance: Passover recalls the Exodus, Shavuot remembers the giving of the Law, and Sukkot marks the wilderness wanderings. In the case of the Akedah, however, silence reigns.

🕋 Islam’s Commemoration

Islam preserves the story in living ritual through the festival of Eid al-Adha. Each year, millions of Muslims worldwide commemorate Abraham’s test of faith with practices that echo the original event:

• Qurbani (sacrifice of livestock) recalls God’s substitution of a ram.
• Prayers unite the community in remembrance.
• Charity ensures that the poor share in the meat.
• Universality makes the commemoration a global act of worship.

In Islamic tradition, the son who was nearly sacrificed is identified as Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn. Thus, what Judaism remembers only in narrative, Islam enshrines in ritual and practice.

❓ The Scholarly Puzzle

This divergence raises a significant puzzle: why would Judaism, with its rich festival calendar, omit commemoration of such a defining story? If Isaac was truly the son placed upon the altar, then surely his survival—no less than the Exodus—warrants annual remembrance.

Some scholars suggest that Genesis 22:2 may have undergone redaction, with the name “Isaac” inserted in place of “Ishmael.” If the original tradition centered on Ishmael, the absence of Jewish ritual commemoration begins to make sense: a story once attached to Abraham’s firstborn was later reshaped, and silence became the safest theological option.

🏺 Historical-Critical Insight

From a historical-critical perspective, the silence of the Torah may itself be evidence of earlier memories. It is possible that the original story celebrated Ishmael as the son of sacrifice, a view preserved in Islamic tradition. Later scribes, seeking to reinforce Israel’s covenantal identity through Isaac, may have shifted the narrative. The result was a text that names Isaac, but a ritual calendar that refuses to enshrine the memory—reflecting the unease of a rewritten tradition.

🔍 Comparative Framework

The contrast between traditions can be summarized as follows:

• Judaism → The Torah recounts the story but prescribes no festival. The Akedah is remembered in prayer and commentary, but not ritually enacted.
• Islam → The near sacrifice is ritually commemorated through Eid al-Adha, making it a central act of worship and identity.
• Scholarship → The absence of Jewish commemoration is itself a clue, pointing to possible textual evolution and redaction.

🌟 Conclusion

The silence of the Torah is as meaningful as its words.

• For Judaism, the story of Abraham’s test lives in memory but not in ritual practice.
• For Islam, it is a central, annual commemoration, binding the global community in submission to God’s will.
• For scholars, the absence of Torah commemoration hints at deeper layers of textual evolution and theological rewriting.

In the end, the children of Abraham inherited the same story but carried it forward in different ways—Judaism with silence, Islam with celebration. This divergence reflects not only theological difference, but also the complex history of how sacred texts were remembered, reshaped, and lived.

Isaac or Ishmael? A Comparative Study of the Abrahamic Covenant in Islam and the Bible

1. Why Islamic Scholars Believe the Torah Was Altered Regarding Ishmael

The Qur’an accuses some Jewish scribes of altering scripture:

“Do you hope they will believe you, when some of them used to hear the words of God then distort them after they had understood them, knowingly?” (Qur’an 2:75)

“So woe to those who write the Book with their own hands and then say, ‘This is from God,’ to exchange it for a small price.” (Qur’an 2:79)

This doctrine of taḥrīf (distortion) is applied by Muslim exegetes to the Abrahamic covenant narratives. They argue that the Torah originally gave Ishmael covenantal prominence, but Jewish scribes altered the text to place Isaac in that role for political and ethnic reasons:

• Ethnic exclusivity: Restricting the covenant to Isaac made it Israel’s exclusive inheritance.

• Religious authority: Elevating Isaac justified Israel’s claim to be God’s sole chosen people.

• Arab-Israelite rivalry: Excluding Ishmael delegitimized the Ishmaelites (later Arabs) as covenantal heirs.

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2. Islamic Reasons Supporting Ishmael’s Role

a. Qur’anic Testimony

• Universal covenant: Abraham was promised leadership for his descendants, but God limited it to the righteous, not by bloodline (Qur’an 2:124). Ishmael qualifies.

• The Sacrifice Narrative: Qur’an 37:101–112 implies the sacrificed son was Ishmael, since Isaac’s birth is mentioned after the sacrifice story.

• Kaaba (House of God) and prayer for Ishmael’s descendants: Abraham and Ishmael built the Kaaba and prayed for a messenger from their line (Qur’an 2:127–129) — fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ.

• Praise for Ishmael: The Qur’an honors Ishmael as a prophet and covenant-keeper (Qur’an 19:54–55).

b. Historical logic

• Firstborn son: By ancient Near Eastern custom, Ishmael (the firstborn) should have been covenantal heir unless disqualified — but the Bible itself shows God blessing him greatly (Genesis 17:20).

• Circumcision: Ishmael was circumcised at the age of 13, on the same day as his father Abraham, and before Isaac was born (Genesis 17:23–25). This means that Ishmael entered the covenant earlier than Isaac. Therefore, the theological importance of Isaac’s circumcision is similar to that of the other members of Abraham’s household.

• Sacrificial test: Islam preserves Ishmael’s central role in the great test of faith, commemorated annually at Eid al-Adha. Judaism and Christianity, in contrast, have no liturgical commemoration of Isaac’s binding (Akedah), which Muslims see as a sign of textual alteration.

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3. Biblical Reasons that Support the Islamic Assertion

Even within the Bible, there are tensions and clues that suggest Ishmael’s role was more significant than later scribes allowed:

1. Ishmael is blessed to become a “great nation”

• “As for Ishmael, I have heard you. I will surely bless him; I will make him fruitful and will greatly increase his numbers. He will be the father of twelve rulers, and I will make him into a great nation.” (Genesis 17:20)

This blessing closely parallels covenantal promises given to Isaac.

2. Circumcision before Isaac

• Genesis 17:23–25 explicitly records Ishmael’s circumcision as covenantal sign, before Isaac’s birth. This raises the question: why would the covenant sign be given to one excluded from it?

3. Ambiguity of the Sacrifice Story

• In Genesis 22:2, Isaac is named as the son to be sacrificed. But Muslim scholars argue this insertion is suspicious because:

• Earlier verses (Genesis 22:1) simply say “your son, your only son” — which could only have referred to Ishmael at the time, since Isaac wasn’t born until later.

• The phrase “your only son” makes no sense if Isaac is meant, because Ishmael was alive. Thus, the text seems edited.

4. No Jewish Festival for the Binding

• Despite its centrality, Judaism has no feast commemorating Isaac’s binding, whereas Islam preserves its memory through Eid al-Adha. This absence suggests the Isaac-centered version was secondary.

5. Arab traditions of Abraham and Ishmael

• Pre-Islamic Arabs preserved traditions of Abraham and Ishmael at the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca. This continuity indicates Ishmael’s role was widely remembered outside of Jewish editing.

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4. Ishmael as a Baby: A Biblical Contradiction

The book of Genesis presents Ishmael in a way that appears inconsistent with the chronological details of the narrative:

• Genesis 21:9–10: Sarah sees “the son of Hagar” and demands that Abraham “cast out” the slave woman and her son. Ishmael would have been approximately 16 or 17 years old at this point — not a small child.

• Genesis 21:14–18: Abraham sends Hagar away with bread and water, placing the child on her shoulder as though he were an infant. Later, Hagar lays Ishmael under a bush, unable to watch him die of thirst, until an angel instructs her to “lift the boy up.”

• Genesis 21:20: The text continues, “And God was with the boy as he grew,” which further suggests an image of early childhood.

However, according to the timeline (Genesis 16:16; 21:5), Ishmael would have been approximately 16–17 years old at this stage. The portrayal of him as a helpless baby, therefore, introduces a notable tension within the biblical narrative.

Interestingly, this depiction parallels the Islamic account, which holds that Ishmael was still an infant when Hagar left Abraham’s household and settled in the valley of Makkah, where God provided for them. From this perspective, the biblical image of Ishmael as a young child—despite its chronological inconsistencies—can be seen as indirectly reinforcing the Islamic tradition that situates his departure during infancy, long before the birth of Isaac.

Furthermore, some scholars view Genesis 21:9–10, where Sarah insists on the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael, as a later editorial addition. This insertion may have been intended to emphasize Isaac as the legitimate covenant heir and to reduce Ishmael’s significance, thereby reinforcing Israel’s unique identity within the biblical narrative.

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Conclusion

The ambiguous wording of the sacrifice narrative—where the phrase “your son, your only son” could only have referred to Ishmael at that time—and the fact that Ishmael was circumcised alongside Abraham before Isaac’s birth, strongly indicate his covenantal significance. These elements suggest that Ishmael was indeed a rightful heir of the Abrahamic covenant, but the text was later shaped to elevate Isaac while diminishing Ishmael’s original role.

The contradictions within Genesis — portraying Ishmael as both a teenager by chronology and as a helpless baby by narrative — point to possible textual reshaping intended to diminish his stature in favor of Isaac. At the same time, this very imagery, whether intentional or not, indirectly supports the Islamic belief that Ishmael was in fact an infant when he left Abraham’s household with Hagar. 

Islam affirms that Ishmael was never rejected. Instead, he was a prophet, covenant-bearer, and forefather of Muhammad ﷺ. Through him, the Abrahamic covenant found its universal fulfillment, not confined to one lineage but extending to all nations through Muhammad and the message of Islam.

Isaac: A Son of Joy, Not Sacrifice — Rethinking the Identity of the Sacrificial Son

The story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son is one of the most profound and contested episodes in the Abrahamic traditions. While the Hebrew Bible clearly names Isaac as the intended sacrifice, Islamic tradition maintains that it was Ishmael. In recent years, some scholars and believers have revisited the linguistic, theological, and contextual clues surrounding the narrative. A compelling argument centers around the meaning and role of Isaac’s name, suggesting that Isaac’s very identity may indicate he was never meant to be the sacrificial son.

The Meaning of Isaac’s Name

The name Isaac (Hebrew: Yitzḥaq, meaning “he will laugh” or “laughter”) is deeply tied to the emotional response of Abraham and Sarah upon hearing the divine promise that they would have a child in their old age (Genesis 17:17, 18:12). This laughter reflects astonishment, joy, and divine mercy—emphasizing the miraculous and comforting nature of Isaac’s birth. The child represents the culmination of a divine promise and the joy of old age, rather than a figure marked for trial and sacrifice.

Isaac as a Symbol of Fulfillment and Closure

From this perspective, Isaac is seen not as a son of trial, but as a gift of consolation—the final chapter in the long journey of Abraham and Sarah. His birth occurs after decades of wandering, waiting, and testing. His role in the narrative is one of continuation, legacy, and divine reward, not intense sacrifice. The Biblical text even notes that Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah 90 when Isaac was born—a clear emphasis on grace and joy rather than hardship and testing.

Ishmael as the Son of Trial

In contrast, Ishmael—Abraham’s firstborn by Hagar—is born amid tension, struggle, and uncertainty. According to both Islamic and Biblical narratives, he and his mother were sent away into the wilderness. In the Islamic tradition, this is framed as part of a divine plan, with Ishmael becoming the ancestor of a great nation and a prophet in his own right. Importantly, Islamic scripture (Qur’an 37:99–113) narrates the near-sacrifice without naming the son, but contextual clues suggest it refers to Ishmael, since the announcement of Isaac’s birth follows after the sacrifice episode.

Linguistic and Narrative Inference

The sequence of events in the Qur’an is particularly telling:

“So We gave him the good news of a forbearing son… And when he reached the age of striving, he said: ‘O my son! I have seen in a dream that I am sacrificing you…’” (Qur’an 37:101–102)

This is followed later by:

“And We gave him good news of Isaac, a prophet from among the righteous.” (Qur’an 37:112)

This sequence supports the interpretation that the son being sacrificed was not Isaac, but someone before him—namely, Ishmael. Moreover, this interpretation aligns with a thematic reading: Ishmael is the son through whom Abraham is first tested, while Isaac is the son through whom Abraham is blessed.

Pre-Islamic Arab Tradition

Arab oral traditions preceding Islam also reflect the belief that Ishmael was the son nearly sacrificed. This belief was deeply rooted in the collective memory of the Arab people and manifested in religious rituals such as Eid al-Adha and the Sa’i—the reenactment of Hagar’s search for water. These practices are tied to Ishmael, not Isaac, further reinforcing his role as the son of trial.

Conclusion

While the Biblical tradition names Isaac as the sacrificial son, both linguistic and theological reflections open space for rethinking this assumption. The joyful connotation of Isaac’s name, the sequence of Qur’anic verses, and longstanding Arab traditions all support the idea that Isaac was not the son marked for sacrifice, but rather a son of comfort and reward.

In contrast, Ishmael bears the marks of trial, testing, and divine submission—characteristics that align more directly with the sacrificial narrative. This perspective invites a deeper, more nuanced understanding of Abraham’s legacy and the roles of his two sons in the shared heritage of monotheism.

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