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Azahari Hassim

Surah 10, verse 92, reads:

“Today We will preserve your body (O Pharaoh), so that you become a sign for those after you. But most people are heedless of Our signs.”

Some scholars contend that the discovery of Ramses’ body in modern times is viewed as a miraculous event in the Quran, specifically in Surah 10, verse 92. It resembles Moses’ parting of the Red Sea. As a result, they argue that Muhammad is the prophet mentioned in Deuteronomy 18, verse 18, similar to Moses. How do they express their argument?

The scholars who make this argument typically point to several key points to support their claim:

1. Discovery of Ramses’ body: They argue that the discovery of Pharaoh Ramses II’s body in modern times is a significant event that aligns with the story of Pharaoh’s body being preserved as a sign in Surah 10, verse 92 of the Quran. This miraculous preservation of Pharaoh’s body is seen as a fulfillment of that prophecy.

2. Resemblance to Moses’ parting of the Red Sea: The scholars suggest that the discovery of Ramses’ body can be seen as a parallel to the miracle of Moses parting the Red Sea, as both events involve extraordinary occurrences related to Pharaoh and Moses. This parallel further strengthens the connection between the two stories.

3. Muhammad as the prophet like Moses: In Deuteronomy 18, verse 18, the Bible mentions the coming of a prophet like Moses, whom God will raise up among the brethren of Israelites. Some scholars argue that Muhammad fits the description of this prophet due to similarities in their roles, teachings, and experiences with prophethood.

By combining these points, scholars argue that the discovery of Ramses’ body, the resemblance to Moses’ story, and the identification of Muhammad as the prophet like Moses provide evidence for the divine inspiration of the Quran and Muhammad’s status as a prophet in the line of Moses.

Muhammad, Torah and Hebrew prophets

Does Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21, verse 18, predate the Torah given to Moses?

Yes, Hagar’s prophecy in Genesis 21, verse 18, predates the Torah as given to Moses. The Book of Genesis, which includes the story of Hagar, is considered part of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible) and traditionally attributed to Moses. 

However, the events described in Genesis, including Hagar’s encounter with God and the prophecy concerning her son Ishmael, are believed to have occurred long before the time of Moses, around the patriarchal period.

The narrative in Genesis 21 describes Hagar and Ishmael in the context of Abraham’s family and is thus seen as part of the pre-Mosaic tradition. The Torah, or Pentateuch, as a compilation and codification, is generally understood to have been formalized during the time of Moses, which occurs much later in the biblical timeline. 

Therefore, the events and prophecies in Genesis can be considered as part of the earlier history before the giving of the law to Moses.

What is the argument put forth by those who support the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, in contrast to Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah? Consequently, Muhammad, in contrast to Hebrew prophets such as Jesus, is not bound by the laws of the Torah.

Supporters of the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, argue that this connection sets Muhammad apart from Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah. Here is a detailed explanation of their argument:

1. Pre-Torah Origins of Hagar’s Prophecy

Proponents argue that Hagar’s prophecy, as mentioned in Genesis 21, verse 18, predates the Torah given to Moses. This prophecy concerns Hagar’s son, Ishmael, who is promised to become a great nation. This predates the formalization of the Torah, which is traditionally attributed to Moses and his time.

2. Reiteration and Fulfillment in Islamic Rituals

The Torah reiterates Hagar’s prophecy, but its fulfillment is seen in Islamic practices, particularly the Hajj pilgrimage. The Hajj, which involves rituals connected to Hagar and Ishmael, is viewed as a direct link to their legacy. This pilgrimage is a central practice in Islam, signifying the prophecy’s fulfillment and its importance in Islamic tradition.

3. Marginalization by Ancient Israelite Scribes

It is suggested that ancient Israelite scribes attempted to downplay the significance of Hagar and Ishmael due to theological and political reasons. This marginalization aimed to elevate the prominence of Isaac and the Israelite lineage over Ishmael. The argument posits that the biblical narrative was shaped in a way that selectively emphasized aspects favorable to the Israelite lineage.

Contrast with Hebrew Prophets

1. Association with the Torah

Hebrew prophets are closely linked to the Torah, which is seen as the foundation of their prophetic authority. The Torah, given to Moses, contains the laws and ethical teachings that Hebrew prophets were tasked with interpreting and enforcing. This connection establishes a continuous line of prophetic tradition rooted in the Mosaic covenant.

2. Muhammad’s Independent Prophetic Lineage

In contrast, Muhammad’s prophethood is associated with the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, rather than the Mosaic covenant. This distinction is significant in Islamic theology, which views Muhammad’s message as a continuation and fulfillment of the Abrahamic faith, independent of the Mosaic laws. This perspective underscores the universality of Muhammad’s revelation, intended for all humanity, rather than being confined to the specific legal and ritual practices of the Jewish people.

Theological Implications

1. Universal Prophetic Tradition

By associating Muhammad with a prophecy that predates the Torah, supporters argue that prophetic messages have been universal and ongoing throughout human history. This places Islam within a broader, inclusive prophetic tradition that transcends Jewish ethnic and religious boundaries. It emphasizes the continuity of divine guidance from the time of Abraham through to Muhammad.

2. Distinct Covenants

The argument also highlights the existence of distinct covenants in the Abrahamic religions. While the Hebrew prophets operate under the covenant of Moses and the Sinai revelation, Muhammad is seen as part of the covenant given to Abraham and Ishmael. This theological distinction reinforces the idea that different prophetic traditions are validated by separate covenants within the broader framework of Abrahamic faiths.

In summary, the argument linking Muhammad’s prophethood to Hagar’s prophecy emphasizes its pre-Torah origins, fulfillment in Islamic Hajj, and the marginalization of Hagar’s significance by ancient Israelite scribes. This perspective contrasts Muhammad’s universal and independent prophetic lineage with the Hebrew prophets’ association with the Torah, highlighting distinct covenants and a broader prophetic tradition.

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Azahari Hassim

Some scholars argue that the Quran complements the Torah given to the Jews, as the Torah does not contain a description of God’s nature mentioned in Surah 112 verse 3 of the Quran, which questions the idea of Trinity. How can this argument be clarified?

The topic you bring up involves several layers of religious interpretation and debate among scholars. Let’s unpack this step by step:

1. Surah 112 (Al Ikhlas) of the Quran: This is a short chapter (surah) that describes the oneness of God (tawhid). The verses you’re referring to are:

Say, “He is Allah, [who is] One,
Allah, the Eternal Refuge.
He neither begets nor is born,
Nor is there to Him any equivalent.”

This is a clear declaration of monotheism and negates the idea of God having offspring or being born from something. Many interpret this as a challenge to the Christian idea of the Trinity and God’s sonship.

2. The Torah and God’s Description: While it’s true that the Torah emphasizes the oneness of God, the Torah does not contain the explicit language found in Surah 112 of the Quran regarding God not begetting nor being begotten. This difference is often cited as evidence for the Quran being a complementary revelation.

3. Quran as Complementary: The Quran itself claims to be a final testament that confirms what came before it (previous scriptures) and also acts as a guardian over them, correcting any deviations or misunderstandings. This is the foundation of the belief that the Quran is complementary to earlier revelations like the Torah.

However, it’s essential to understand that these interpretations and beliefs are rooted in faith and religious traditions. The interpretation of scriptures, whether it’s the Torah, Bible, or Quran, can vary widely among scholars and believers within their respective faiths.

The Jewish Perspective on the Belief in God Having a Son

In Judaism, how grave a sin is it to believe that the God of Abraham has a son?

Judaism is a monotheistic religion that believes in one God who is the creator and ruler of the universe. Judaism rejects the idea that God has a son or any other partner or equal. Judaism considers the belief that God has a son to be a form of idolatry, which is a grave sin and a violation of the first commandment.

According to Judaism, God does not have a physical body or human attributes. God is transcendent and incomparable. God does not need a son or any other intermediary to communicate with humanity. God speaks directly to the prophets and reveals His will through the Torah, the sacred scriptures of Judaism.

The term “son of God” is sometimes used in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) to refer to different groups or individuals who have a special relationship with God, such as Israel, the king, the angels, or the righteous. However, this term is not meant to imply any biological or metaphysical connection between God and His creatures. It is a metaphorical expression of love, favor, or covenant.

Judaism does not accept the Christian claim that Jesus is the son of God.

Therefore, to believe that God has a son is contrary to the core principles of Judaism and an offense to God’s uniqueness and sovereignty. It is a serious sin that goes against the most fundamental belief of Judaism:

“Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deuteronomy 6, verse 4).

How does the Hebrew Bible teach monotheism?

The Book of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible contains several passages that emphasize the unity and singular nature of God, which are often cited in discussions about monotheism. Here are a few key verses from Isaiah that highlight the unity of God:

1. Isaiah 44, verse 6:

“Thus says the LORD, the King of Israel and his Redeemer, the LORD of hosts: ‘I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no god.’”

This verse clearly articulates the oneness of God, stating that there is no other deity besides Him.

2. Isaiah 45, verse 5:

“I am the LORD, and there is no other, apart from me there is no God; I will strengthen you, though you have not acknowledged me,”.

Again, this asserts the exclusivity of God as the only divine being, emphasizing that no other gods exist alongside Him.

3. Isaiah 45, verse 18:

“For thus says the LORD, who created the heavens (he is God!), who formed the earth and made it (he established it; he did not create it empty, he formed it to be inhabited!): ‘I am the LORD, and there is no other.’”

This verse not only speaks to God’s uniqueness but also to His role as the sole creator of the universe, reinforcing the idea of His singular divinity.

4. Isaiah 46, verse 9:

“Remember the former things of old; for I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me,”.

This verse emphasizes the uniqueness of God, stating there is none like Him, highlighting His distinct nature and the exclusivity of His divinity.

These verses from Isaiah are often used to support the concept of monotheism, a core belief in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, albeit each religion understands and interacts with this concept differently. In the context of Islamic teachings, similar verses from the Quran echo these themes to assert the oneness of God against polytheistic beliefs and theological concepts like the Trinity in Christianity.

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Azahari Hassim

According to established tradition, prior to the advent of Muhammad, the Arabs believed that their ancestor Abraham was on the verge of offering his son Ishmael as a sacrifice to God. It is believed that their pre-Islamic tradition about Ishmael predates the Torah given to Moses. How is their argument articulated?

Scholars argue that the oral traditions of the Arabs, including those surrounding Ishmael, predate the written texts of the Torah. This assertion is based on the notion that oral traditions can be older than their written counterparts, as they may have been passed down through generations long before being codified in scripture.

The argument that the pre-Islamic Arab tradition about Ishmael predates the Torah given to Moses is articulated through several points:

1. Historical Narratives: Early Arab traditions held that Ishmael, not Isaac, was the son Abraham was commanded to sacrifice. This belief is deeply rooted in the cultural and religious narratives of pre-Islamic Arabia.

2. Religious Significance: The story of Ishmael’s near-sacrifice is significant in Islam, where it is believed that both Abraham and Ishmael willingly submitted to God’s command. This act of submission is seen as a profound demonstration of faith and obedience.

3. Cultural Artifacts: Some early Muslim scholars argued that the horns of the ram, which was sacrificed in place of Ishmael, were once displayed in the Kaaba, suggesting a long-standing tradition that predates Islamic scripture.

4. Jealousy Argument: There is also an argument that Jews claimed Isaac was the intended sacrifice out of jealousy, as Ishmael is considered the ancestor of the Arabs.

These points collectively support the belief that the tradition of Ishmael’s near-sacrifice has ancient roots, predating the Torah and reflecting the unique relationship between God and the Arab people.

Interestingly, before the rise of Islam, ancient Arabs in Mecca circumcised their children at the age of 13 or 14. Did they inherit this practice from the Torah, which requires circumcision at eight days, or was it a tradition tracing back to Abraham that predated the Torah?

It is plausible that the tradition of circumcision among ancient Arabs in Mecca traced back to Abraham, who is considered a common ancestor by both Jews and Arabs. It could be that this practice was passed down through generations independently of any direct influence from the Torah or Judaism.

Hagar’s Prophecy predated the Torah

It is believed that the prophecy of Hagar predated the Torah revealed to the Israelites. The Torah reiterated her prophecy, whose fulfillment is realized in the ritual Hajj of Islam. Some argue that the scribes of ancient Israelites attempted to tone down its importance. How is the argument articulated?

The argument as presented suggests that the prophecy of Hagar, which is believed to have predated the Torah, finds its fulfillment in the Islamic ritual of Hajj, and that the scribes of ancient Israel attempted to diminish its significance. Here’s how this argument is explained:

1. Pre-Torah origins: This argument posits that the prophecy of Hagar and her descendants, including Ishmael, existed prior to the revelation of the Torah to Moses. Supporters of this view often point to the genealogical and historical connections between Hagar and Ishmael and the founding of the Arab people.

2. Prophecy reiterated in Torah: The claim is made that the Torah, when it was revealed to the Israelites, reiterated and acknowledged the prophecy related to Hagar and Ishmael. This acknowledgment can be found in the biblical narrative where Hagar and Ishmael’s story is mentioned.

3. Importance of the Hajj ritual: Proponents then assert that the fulfillment of Hagar’s prophecy, as reiterated in the Torah, can be seen in the Islamic ritual of Hajj. They argue that Hajj, which is a pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is seen as a direct link to Hagar and Ishmael and represents the fulfillment of their destiny. This ritual is regarded as a significant practice in Islam and is central to the religious identity of Muslims.

4. Suppression of Hagar’s significance: The argument continues by suggesting that the scribes of ancient Israel attempted to downplay the importance of Hagar and her descendants, including Ishmael, due to theological and political motivations. It is proposed that, in shaping the biblical narrative, these scribes might have marginalized or selectively emphasized certain aspects to elevate the prominence of Isaac and the Israelite lineage over Ishmael.

It’s important to note that this argument reflects a particular perspective and interpretation. There are different viewpoints on this topic, and scholars hold a wide array of opinions regarding the relationship between biblical narratives, biblical redaction, and the Islamic tradition.

Muhammad and the Hebrew prophets

What is the argument put forth by those who support the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, in contrast to Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah? Consequently, Muhammad, in contrast to Hebrew prophets such as Jesus, is not bound by the laws of the Torah.

Supporters of the idea that the prophethood of Muhammad is linked to Hagar’s prophecy, which predates the Torah, argue that this connection sets Muhammad apart from Hebrew prophets who are associated with the Torah. Here is a detailed explanation of their argument:

1. Pre-Torah Origins of Hagar’s Prophecy

Proponents argue that Hagar’s prophecy, as mentioned in Genesis 21, verse 18, predates the Torah given to Moses. This prophecy concerns Hagar’s son, Ishmael, who is promised to become a great nation. This predates the formalization of the Torah, which is traditionally attributed to Moses and his time.

2. Reiteration and Fulfillment in Islamic Rituals

The Torah reiterates Hagar’s prophecy, but its fulfillment is seen in Islamic practices, particularly the Hajj pilgrimage. The Hajj, which involves rituals connected to Hagar and Ishmael, is viewed as a direct link to their legacy. This pilgrimage is a central practice in Islam, signifying the prophecy’s fulfillment and its importance in Islamic tradition.

3. Marginalization by Ancient Israelite Scribes

It is suggested that ancient Israelite scribes attempted to downplay the significance of Hagar and Ishmael due to theological and political reasons. This marginalization aimed to elevate the prominence of Isaac and the Israelite lineage over Ishmael. The argument posits that the biblical narrative was shaped in a way that selectively emphasized aspects favorable to the Israelite lineage.

Contrast with Hebrew Prophets

1. Association with the Torah

Hebrew prophets are closely linked to the Torah, which is seen as the foundation of their prophetic authority. The Torah, given to Moses, contains the laws and ethical teachings that Hebrew prophets were tasked with interpreting and enforcing. This connection establishes a continuous line of prophetic tradition rooted in the Mosaic covenant.

2. Muhammad’s Independent Prophetic Lineage

In contrast, Muhammad’s prophethood is associated with the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, rather than the Mosaic covenant. This distinction is significant in Islamic theology, which views Muhammad’s message as a continuation and fulfillment of the Abrahamic faith, independent of the Mosaic laws. This perspective underscores the universality of Muhammad’s revelation, intended for all humanity, rather than being confined to the specific legal and ritual practices of the Jewish people.

Theological Implications

Universal Prophetic Tradition

By associating Muhammad with a prophecy that predates the Torah, supporters argue that prophetic messages have been universal and ongoing throughout human history. This places Islam within a broader, inclusive prophetic tradition that transcends Jewish ethnic and religious boundaries. It emphasizes the continuity of divine guidance from the time of Abraham through to Muhammad.

Distinct Covenants

The argument also highlights the existence of distinct covenants in the Abrahamic religions. While the Hebrew prophets operate under the covenant of Moses and the Sinai revelation, Muhammad is seen as part of the covenant given to Abraham and Ishmael. This theological distinction reinforces the idea that different prophetic traditions are validated by separate covenants within the broader framework of Abrahamic faiths.

In summary, the argument linking Muhammad’s prophethood to Hagar’s prophecy emphasizes its pre-Torah origins, fulfillment in Islamic Hajj, and the marginalization of Hagar’s significance by ancient Israelite scribes. This perspective contrasts Muhammad’s universal and independent prophetic lineage with the Hebrew prophets’ association with the Torah, highlighting distinct covenants and a broader prophetic tradition.

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Azahari Hassim

In the New Testament, Jesus affirms the belief in monotheism, the understanding of one God. He upholds the teachings of the Hebrew Scriptures, which emphasize belief in one true God. Here are several examples:

1. Mark 12, verse 29: In response to a question about the greatest commandment, Jesus quotes the Shema from Deuteronomy 6, verse 4, saying, “The most important one is this: ‘Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one.’” Here, Jesus emphasizes the foundational Jewish belief in one God, affirming that monotheism remains central to his teachings.
2. John 17, verse 3: In his prayer to God, Jesus says, “Now this is eternal life: that they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent.” By addressing God as the “only true God,” Jesus underlines that God alone is worthy of worship and emphasizes his own role as the one sent by God, distinguishing himself from God and reinforcing monotheistic belief.
3. Matthew 4, verse 10: When tempted by Satan, Jesus responds, “Away from me, Satan! For it is written: ‘Worship the Lord your God and serve him only.’” Quoting Deuteronomy 6, verse 13, Jesus affirms that worship should be directed to God alone, rejecting the idea of worshiping anyone or anything else.
4. Mark 10, verse 18: When a man addresses Jesus as “Good Teacher,” Jesus replies, “Why do you call me good? No one is good—except God alone.” Here, Jesus redirects the focus back to God, attributing ultimate goodness to God alone. This statement reflects Jesus’ humility and his acknowledgment of God’s unique holiness, underscoring monotheism by reserving true goodness and divinity for God alone.

These verses highlight Jesus’ affirmation of belief in one God and his rejection of worshiping any other gods or idols. Jesus consistently teaches that there is only one true God, encouraging his followers to worship and serve Him alone. Through his words and actions, Jesus aligns himself with the core tenets of monotheism found in the Hebrew Scriptures, affirming the oneness and sovereignty of God.

How does the Hebrew Bible teach monotheism?

The Book of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible contains several passages that emphasize the unity and singular nature of God, which are often cited in discussions about monotheism. Here are a few key verses from Isaiah that highlight the unity of God:

1. Isaiah 44, verse 6: “Thus says the LORD, the King of Israel and his Redeemer, the LORD of hosts: ‘I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no god.’”
   This verse clearly articulates the oneness of God, stating that there is no other deity besides Him.
2. Isaiah 45, verse 5: “I am the LORD, and there is no other, apart from me there is no God; I will strengthen you, though you have not acknowledged me,”.
   Again, this asserts the exclusivity of God as the only divine being, emphasizing that no other gods exist alongside Him.
3. Isaiah 45, verse 18: “For thus says the LORD, who created the heavens (he is God!), who formed the earth and made it (he established it; he did not create it empty, he formed it to be inhabited!): ‘I am the LORD, and there is no other.’”
   This verse not only speaks to God’s uniqueness but also to His role as the sole creator of the universe, reinforcing the idea of His singular divinity.
4. Isaiah 46, verse 9: “Remember the former things of old; for I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me,”.
   This verse emphasizes the uniqueness of God, stating there is none like Him, highlighting His distinct nature and the exclusivity of His divinity.

These verses from Isaiah are often used to support the concept of monotheism, a core belief in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, albeit each religion understands and interacts with this concept differently. In the context of Islamic teachings, similar verses from the Quran echo these themes to assert the oneness of God against polytheistic beliefs and theological concepts like the Trinity in Christianity.

The Jewish Perspective on the Belief in God Having a Son

In Judaism, how grave a sin is it to believe that the God of Abraham has a son?

Judaism is a monotheistic religion that believes in one God who is the creator and ruler of the universe. Judaism rejects the idea that God has a son or any other partner or equal. Judaism considers the belief that God has a son to be a form of idolatry, which is a grave sin and a violation of the first commandment.

According to Judaism, God does not have a physical body or human attributes. God is transcendent and incomparable. God does not need a son or any other intermediary to communicate with humanity. God speaks directly to the prophets and reveals His will through the Torah, the sacred scriptures of Judaism.

The term “son of God” is sometimes used in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) to refer to different groups or individuals who have a special relationship with God, such as Israel, the king, the angels, or the righteous. However, this term is not meant to imply any biological or metaphysical connection between God and His creatures. It is a metaphorical expression of love, favor, or covenant.

Judaism does not accept the Christian claim that Jesus is the son of God.

Therefore, to believe that God has a son is contrary to the core principles of Judaism and an offense to God’s uniqueness and sovereignty. It is a serious sin that goes against the most fundamental belief of Judaism:

“Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deuteronomy 6, verse 4).

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Azahari Hassim

Some contend that the celebration of Eid al-Adha (feast of sacrifice) by all Muslims, in contrast to the Jewish observance of Passover, suggests that Muslims are linked to the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, while Jews are associated with the Sinai covenant. How does their argument go?

The argument that Muslims are linked to the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, while Jews are associated with the Sinai covenant, is based on a few key points:

1. Eid al-Adha commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, which Muslims believe was Ishmael rather than Isaac. This directly connects Muslims to Abraham and Ishmael.

2. All Muslims worldwide celebrate Eid al-Adha by sacrificing an animal, reminiscent of Abraham’s sacrifice. This universal observance is seen as linking all Muslims to the Abrahamic covenant.

3. The Quran portrays Ishmael as assisting Abraham in building the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca, further cementing the connection between Muslims, Abraham and Ishmael.

4. In contrast, Passover specifically commemorates the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt under Moses’ leadership. This event is directly tied to the giving of the Torah and establishment of the Sinai covenant.

5. The Sinai covenant, with its 613 commandments, is seen as specifically binding on Jews rather than on all people.

6. Some argue there is a distinction between the Abrahamic covenant characterized by promise, and the Sinai covenant characterized by law.

7. While both trace ancestry to Abraham, Muslims see themselves as spiritual descendants of Ishmael, while Jews trace their lineage through Isaac and Jacob.

Therefore, this difference in religious observances implies that Muslims see themselves as heirs to the Abrahamic covenant through Ishmael, while Jews associate themselves more closely with the later Sinai covenant.

However, it’s important to note that both religions still consider Abraham a key patriarch and founder of monotheism.

This argument highlights some of the theological differences between Islam and Judaism regarding their relationship to Abraham and divine covenants, though both religions still revere Abraham as a major prophet and patriarch.

Islamic Eid al-Adha and Jewish Passover

Islamic Eid al-Adha and Jewish Passover refer to two significant religious holidays in Islam and Judaism, respectively. Here’s a brief overview:

Eid al-Adha (Islamic Holiday)

1. Meaning: “Festival of Sacrifice”

2. Commemorates: Prophet Ibrahim’s (Abraham) willingness to sacrifice his son Ismail (Ishmael)

3. Dates: 10th-13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah (Islamic calendar)

4. Traditions: Sacrificing animals (usually sheep or goats), distributing meat to poor, family gatherings, prayers

Jewish Passover (Pesach)

1. Meaning: “Passover” or “Protection”

2. Commemorates: Israelites’ liberation from slavery in Egypt

3. Dates: 15th-22nd day of Nisan (Hebrew calendar)

4. Traditions: Seder meals, reading Haggadah, eating matzah, avoiding chametz (leavened products)

Comparing Eid al-Adha and Jewish Passover:

Similarities:

1. Both celebrate faith, sacrifice, and redemption.

2. Emphasize family gatherings, meals, and charity.

3. Share roots in Abrahamic tradition.

Differences:

1. Historical context: Eid al-Adha honors Ibrahim’s sacrifice, while Passover commemorates Israelites’ Exodus.

2. Theological significance: Eid al-Adha highlights submission to God, while Passover emphasizes liberation and freedom.

3. Practices and rituals: Different customs, foods, and liturgies.

The expression “Islamic Eid al-Adha vs Jewish Passover” might imply:

1. Comparison of similarities and differences.

2. Discussion of shared Abrahamic heritage.

3. Exploration of distinct theological perspectives.

Abraham’s Role in Judaism and Islam: A Comparative Overview

Some believe that the religion of Judaism is more connected to its history rather than to the person of Abraham when compared to Islam where Abraham plays an important role in the event of Hajj. How is this argument explained?

The argument that Judaism is more connected to its history rather than to the person of Abraham, compared to Islam where Abraham plays a significant role, can be explained by examining the different emphases each religion places on Abraham and their historical narratives.

In Judaism, Abraham is indeed a foundational figure, often referred to as the patriarch of the Jewish people. However, the religion places a strong emphasis on the collective history and experiences of the Jewish people, particularly the Exodus from Egypt, the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai, and the establishment of the covenant between God and the Israelites. These events are central to Jewish identity and religious practice. While Abraham is revered, the focus is more on the ongoing relationship between God and the Jewish people as a whole.

In Islam, Abraham is a central figure not only as a prophet but also in the rituals and practices of the faith. He is considered a model of faith and obedience to God. His role is particularly highlighted during the Hajj pilgrimage, where several rituals commemorate his actions, such as the building of the Kaaba with his son Ishmael and his willingness to sacrifice his firstborn son Ishmael in obedience to God’s command. These rituals are performed by millions of Muslims annually, reinforcing Abraham’s significance in Islamic practice and belief.

In conclusion, the difference in emphasis can be attributed to the distinct theological and historical developments within each religion. Judaism’s focus on historical events and collective experiences shapes its religious identity, while Islam’s emphasis on prophetic models, including Abraham, integrates these figures deeply into its rituals and daily practices.

Holy Quran 3:68

إِنَّ أَوْلَى ٱلنَّاسِ بِإِبْرَٰهِيمَ لَلَّذِينَ ٱتَّبَعُوهُ وَهَٰذَا ٱلنَّبِىُّ وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ وَلِىُّ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ

Verily, among mankind who have the best claim to Ibrahim (Abraham) are those who followed him, and this Prophet (Muhammad) and those who have believed (Muslims). And Allah is the Wali (Protector and Helper) of the believers.

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Azahari Hassim

The Book of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible contains several passages that emphasize the unity and singular nature of God, which are often cited in discussions about monotheism. Here are a few key verses from Isaiah that highlight the unity of God:

1. Isaiah 44, verse 6: “Thus says the LORD, the King of Israel and his Redeemer, the LORD of hosts: ‘I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no god.’”
   This verse clearly articulates the oneness of God, stating that there is no other deity besides Him.
2. Isaiah 45, verse 5: “I am the LORD, and there is no other, apart from me there is no God; I will strengthen you, though you have not acknowledged me,”.
   Again, this asserts the exclusivity of God as the only divine being, emphasizing that no other gods exist alongside Him.
3. Isaiah 45, verse 18: “For thus says the LORD, who created the heavens (he is God!), who formed the earth and made it (he established it; he did not create it empty, he formed it to be inhabited!): ‘I am the LORD, and there is no other.’”
   This verse not only speaks to God’s uniqueness but also to His role as the sole creator of the universe, reinforcing the idea of His singular divinity.
4. Isaiah 46, verse 9: “Remember the former things of old; for I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me,”.
   This verse emphasizes the uniqueness of God, stating there is none like Him, highlighting His distinct nature and the exclusivity of His divinity.

These verses from Isaiah are often used to support the concept of monotheism, a core belief in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, albeit each religion understands and interacts with this concept differently. In the context of Islamic teachings, similar verses from the Quran echo these themes to assert the oneness of God against polytheistic beliefs and theological concepts like the Trinity in Christianity.

The Jewish Perspective on the Belief in God Having a Son

In Judaism, how grave a sin is it to believe that the God of Abraham has a son?

Judaism is a monotheistic religion that believes in one God who is the creator and ruler of the universe. Judaism rejects the idea that God has a son or any other partner or equal. Judaism considers the belief that God has a son to be a form of idolatry, which is a grave sin and a violation of the first commandment.

According to Judaism, God does not have a physical body or human attributes. God is transcendent and incomparable. God does not need a son or any other intermediary to communicate with humanity. God speaks directly to the prophets and reveals His will through the Torah, the sacred scriptures of Judaism.

The term “son of God” is sometimes used in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) to refer to different groups or individuals who have a special relationship with God, such as Israel, the king, the angels, or the righteous. However, this term is not meant to imply any biological or metaphysical connection between God and His creatures. It is a metaphorical expression of love, favor, or covenant.

Judaism does not accept the Christian claim that Jesus is the son of God.

Therefore, to believe that God has a son is contrary to the core principles of Judaism and an offense to God’s uniqueness and sovereignty. It is a serious sin that goes against the most fundamental belief of Judaism:

“Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deuteronomy 6, verse 4).

Where in the New Testament does Jesus teach monotheism?

In the New Testament, Jesus affirms the belief in monotheism, the understanding of one God. He upholds the teachings of the Hebrew Scriptures, which emphasize belief in one true God. Here are several examples:

1. Mark 12, verse 29: In response to a question about the greatest commandment, Jesus quotes the Shema from Deuteronomy 6, verse 4, saying:

“The most important one is this: ‘Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one.’”

Here, Jesus emphasizes the foundational Jewish belief in one God, affirming that monotheism remains central to his teachings.

2. John 17, verse 3: In his prayer to God, Jesus says:

“Now this is eternal life: that they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent.”

By addressing God as the “only true God,” Jesus underlines that God alone is worthy of worship and emphasizes his own role as the one sent by God, distinguishing himself from God and reinforcing monotheistic belief.

3. Matthew 4, verse 10: When tempted by Satan, Jesus responds:

“Away from me, Satan! For it is written: ‘Worship the Lord your God and serve him only.’”

Quoting Deuteronomy 6, verse 13, Jesus affirms that worship should be directed to God alone, rejecting the idea of worshiping anyone or anything else.

4. Mark 10, verse 18: When a man addresses Jesus as “Good Teacher,” Jesus replies:

“Why do you call me good? No one is good—except God alone.”

Here, Jesus redirects the focus back to God, attributing ultimate goodness to God alone. This statement reflects Jesus’ humility and his acknowledgment of God’s unique holiness, underscoring monotheism by reserving true goodness and divinity for God alone.

These verses highlight Jesus’ affirmation of belief in one God and his rejection of worshiping any other gods or idols. Jesus consistently teaches that there is only one true God, encouraging his followers to worship and serve Him alone. Through his words and actions, Jesus aligns himself with the core tenets of monotheism found in the Hebrew Scriptures, affirming the oneness and sovereignty of God.

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Some believe that the religion of Judaism is more connected to its history rather than to the person of Abraham when compared to Islam where Abraham plays an important role in the event of Hajj. How is this argument explained?

The argument that Judaism is more connected to its history rather than to the person of Abraham, compared to Islam where Abraham plays a significant role, can be explained by examining the different emphases each religion places on Abraham and their historical narratives.

In Judaism, Abraham is indeed a foundational figure, often referred to as the patriarch of the Jewish people. However, the religion places a strong emphasis on the collective history and experiences of the Jewish people, particularly the Exodus from Egypt, the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai, and the establishment of the covenant between God and the Israelites. These events are central to Jewish identity and religious practice. While Abraham is revered, the focus is more on the ongoing relationship between God and the Jewish people as a whole.

In Islam, Abraham is a central figure not only as a prophet but also in the rituals and practices of the faith. He is considered a model of faith and obedience to God. His role is particularly highlighted during the Hajj pilgrimage, where several rituals commemorate his actions, such as the building of the Kaaba with his son Ishmael and his willingness to sacrifice his firstborn son Ishmael in obedience to God’s command. These rituals are performed by millions of Muslims annually, reinforcing Abraham’s significance in Islamic practice and belief.

In conclusion, the difference in emphasis can be attributed to the distinct theological and historical developments within each religion. Judaism’s focus on historical events and collective experiences shapes its religious identity, while Islam’s emphasis on prophetic models, including Abraham, integrates these figures deeply into its rituals and daily practices.

Abraham: The Father of Monotheism and Paragon of Virtue in Jewish Thought

Jewish sages throughout history have frequently cited Abraham as a central figure and role model. They highlighted various aspects of his character, actions, and faith to impart important lessons in Jewish thought and practice. Below are a few examples from notable Jewish sages and classical texts that discuss Abraham’s significance:

1. Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers)

The sages in Pirkei Avot emphasize Abraham’s virtues, contrasting his qualities with those of Balaam, a prophet known for negative traits.

“Whoever possesses these three qualities is of the disciples of our father Abraham, and whoever possesses the opposite three qualities is of the disciples of the wicked Balaam: A good eye, a humble spirit, and a moderate appetite are the traits of the disciples of our father Abraham…”

(Pirkei Avot 5:19)

This teaching underscores Abraham’s generosity, humility, and self-restraint, establishing him as a model of ethical behavior.

2. Midrash Tanchuma

The Midrash Tanchuma provides stories and commentary on Abraham’s faith and his rejection of idolatry. It describes how he came to believe in one God independently and how he influenced others.

“Abraham recognized his Creator when he was three years old… He said, ‘It is impossible that this world should have no guide,’ and he began to seek after God.”

(Midrash Tanchuma, Lech Lecha 2)

This midrash shows Abraham as a seeker of truth who rejected the idolatry around him, becoming a model of discovery and monotheism.

3. Bereshit Rabbah (Genesis Rabbah)

The Midrash Bereshit Rabbah elaborates on Abraham’s hospitality and kindness, particularly the famous scene in Genesis 18 where he welcomes strangers.

“Rabbi Yochanan said: Greater is hospitality than receiving the Divine Presence, for it is written: ‘And he [Abraham] saw three men and ran to greet them’ (Genesis 18:2) even though he was conversing with God.”

(Bereshit Rabbah 48:9)

This commentary highlights Abraham’s dedication to hospitality, even above his personal spiritual experience, presenting him as an example of placing the needs of others first.

4. Maimonides (Rambam)

Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon), in his work Mishneh Torah, discusses Abraham’s role in spreading monotheism, portraying him as the first person to teach and bring others to the worship of one God.

“Abraham began to stand and call in a loud voice to all the people, and he informed them that there is one God for the entire world… he taught the people, and he showed them the proper path. As a result, thousands gathered around him.”

(Mishneh Torah, Laws of Idolatry 1:3)

Maimonides sees Abraham as a spiritual teacher who laid the groundwork for monotheism and the Jewish faith.

5. Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai in the Zohar

The Zohar, a foundational work of Jewish mysticism traditionally attributed to Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, describes Abraham as the archetype of Chesed (loving-kindness). In Kabbalistic thought, Abraham embodies this divine attribute in the way he lived and interacted with others.

“Abraham personified kindness and love. He spread God’s love to the world and showed people the way to kindness, becoming a reflection of the divine attribute of Chesed.”

(Zohar, Lech Lecha 1:82a)

The Zohar portrays Abraham not only as a historical figure but as a channel for divine attributes, making his life an embodiment of Chesed.

6. Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi in the Kuzari

In The Kuzari, Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi presents Abraham as the prototype of faith through reason and revelation. He describes Abraham’s path to monotheism and his role as the father of the Jewish nation.

“Abraham, in his search for truth, rejected the worship of stars, the elements, and idols… he desired to reach the One behind it all and was rewarded with divine revelation and the promise that he would become a great nation.”

(Kuzari, Part I, 95)

Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi views Abraham as a model of someone who, through intellectual and spiritual inquiry, arrives at a true relationship with God.

7. Rabbi Nachman of Breslov

Rabbi Nachman, a Chassidic master, saw Abraham as the ideal model of faith and commitment. He taught that Abraham’s unwavering trust in God, even during the Akeidah (binding of Isaac), serves as an example of pure faith (emunah).

“Abraham is our example of true faith—emunah shelemah. Even when commanded to sacrifice Isaac, he trusted completely. Faith like Abraham’s is what we must strive for.”

(Likutei Moharan, Torah 32)

Rabbi Nachman emphasizes Abraham’s deep faith as a spiritual goal for others to emulate.

8. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch

Rabbi Hirsch, in his commentary on the Torah, focuses on Abraham as a model of ethical monotheism, showing that Abraham’s life represents the union of faith and moral action.

“Abraham… brought to humanity the insight that belief in God necessitates ethical action and love for others. He taught that a relationship with God requires justice and kindness.”

(Commentary on Genesis 18:19)

Rabbi Hirsch sees Abraham’s faith as inherently ethical, showing that belief in God must lead to compassion and righteousness.

Conclusion

Jewish sages regard Abraham as the father of monotheism, the paragon of faith, and the epitome of kindness and justice. His journey of discovering God, spreading monotheism, and practicing righteousness and hospitality is consistently highlighted. These sages see Abraham’s life as an enduring source of lessons on faith, morality, and devotion to God and humanity.

Reexamining the Abrahamic Covenant: Ishmael’s Primacy in Islamic Tradition

Did Abraham, Isaac and Jacob know about Mount Sinai and its sacredness?

The biblical accounts suggest that Mount Sinai and its sacredness were not known to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The significance sacred of Mount Sinai is primarily associated with the story of Moses and the Israelites’ liberation from Egypt, as described in the Book of Exodus. However, it’s important to note that beliefs and interpretations may vary among different religious traditions.

The belief that the Abrahamic covenant was fulfilled through Ishmael rather than Isaac, including the promise of land from the Nile to the Euphrates and the blessing to all nations through Abraham’s seed, is held by some, particularly within Islamic tradition. Here’s a more detailed articulation of their argument:

Ishmael and the Covenant.

1. Ishmael as the Firstborn: Supporters of this view argue that Ishmael, being Abraham’s firstborn son, was the original heir to the covenant. They emphasize that Ishmael was the first child of Abraham, born to Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian maidservant.
2. Sacrifice Narrative: They contend that the narrative of Abraham being asked to sacrifice his son originally referred to Ishmael, not Isaac. This is based on the belief that ancient scriptures were altered by Israelite scribes to emphasize Isaac’s role.
3. Blessing and Land Promise: The promise of land from the Nile to the Euphrates and the blessing to all nations is seen as applying to Ishmael’s descendants. Islamic tradition views Ishmael as an ancestor of the Arab peoples, and thus sees the fulfillment of these promises through the Islamic Hajj and in the rise of Islamic civilization.

Scriptural Alteration Argument.

1. Scribal Changes: They argue that ancient Israelite scribes altered the scriptures to shift the focus from Ishmael to Isaac. This was done to establish a theological foundation for the Israelites’ claim to the land and their unique covenantal relationship with God.
2. Evidence from Quranic Texts: The Quran refers to the story of Abraham and his son, implying that Ishmael was the one to be sacrificed. This, combined with historical accounts and interpretations, is used to argue for the primacy of Ishmael in the covenantal promises.

Genesis 22:18: Muhammad, the Hajj, and Differing Interpretations Across Abrahamic Faiths

Did Muhammad, through the Hajj ritual, fulfill the prophecy mentioned in Genesis 22, verse 18?

The verse you are referring to, Genesis 22, verse 18, reads: “And through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me.” This promise is made to Abraham after he demonstrates his willingness to sacrifice his son (Isaac, according to the Bible; Ishmael, according to Islamic tradition).
Many Jewish and Christian theologians interpret the “offspring” (or “seed”) mentioned in this verse as a reference to the line of descendants that would lead to the Jewish people, and by extension, to Jesus Christ in Christian theology. Through this lineage, blessings would be conferred to all nations.

In Islamic theology, however, the “offspring” or “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, is often interpreted as referring to Ishmael, the son who was nearly sacrificed according to Islamic tradition. Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad, as a direct descendant of Ishmael, fulfills this prophecy, as it is through him that all nations are blessed with the message of Islam.

The lineage of Prophet Muhammad through Ishmael is considered important in Islamic belief because the near-sacrifice event, believed to involve Ishmael instead of Isaac, is central to the Abrahamic covenant. Muslims believe that the final and complete message of God to humanity, Islam, came through this prophetic lineage.
The Hajj ritual, which commemorates events in the lives of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael, can be seen by Muslims as a testament to the fulfillment of this prophecy. Every year, followers of Islam globally gather in Mecca to take part in the Hajj pilgrimage, commemorating the tradition of Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son Ishmael.

It symbolizes the universality of the blessings promised to Abraham’s descendants. For many Muslims, this pilgrimage is a manifestation of the blessings through Ishmael’s lineage, culminating in Muhammad and the global reach of Islam.

However, this interpretation is not universally accepted, especially among Jewish and Christian theologians, who typically see the “offspring” or “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, as referring to Isaac’s line, ultimately leading to the people of Israel and, in Christian theology, to Jesus Christ. Interpretations of scripture are deeply influenced by religious, theological, and cultural perspectives.

In summary, while some Muslims assert that Muhammad, as a descendant of Ishmael, fulfills the prophecy in Genesis 22, verse 18, through the message of Islam and rituals like the Hajj, this interpretation is specific to Islamic theology. It reflects the belief that Ishmael, rather than Isaac, was the son nearly sacrificed and that Muhammad, as Ishmael’s descendant, brings blessings to all nations. This view is not shared by all Abrahamic faiths.

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Some believe Gog, mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel that invades the Holy Land, is the nation that converted to Judaism. They obsess over the Holy Land and Jerusalem due to their conversion. How is this argument explained?

The argument that Gog, mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel, is a nation that converted to Judaism and will invade the Holy Land can be explained through various interpretations and beliefs held by some individuals.

In the Book of Ezekiel, Gog is described as a powerful ruler who leads an army against the people of the Holy land. Some people interpret this passage metaphorically, suggesting that Gog represents a nation or group of nations rather than an individual. According to this interpretation, these nations are believed to have converted to Judaism and developed a strong attachment to the Holy Land and Jerusalem.

This belief may stem from the idea that conversion to Judaism involves adopting not only religious practices but also a connection with Jewish history and heritage. The Holy Land holds immense significance in Judaism as it is considered the promised land given by God to the Jewish people. Therefore, those who convert might develop an intense focus on reclaiming or protecting this sacred territory.

Additionally, Jerusalem holds great importance in both religious and historical contexts for Jews. It is home to significant religious sites such as the Western Wall and Temple Mount. Consequently, individuals who believe in this argument might emphasize Jerusalem’s role as a central point for their newly adopted faith.

It’s important to note that interpretations of biblical texts can vary widely among different individuals or religious groups. While some may support this argument about Gog being a converted nation invading the Holy Land due to their intense focus on Jerusalem, others may have alternative explanations or reject this interpretation altogether.

Do the Khazars have a direct lineage to numerous contemporary Jewish populations?

Some argue that the Khazars are the ancestors of many modern Jews, particularly those of Ashkenazi descent, and that their conversion to Judaism has resulted in a special attachment to the Holy Land and Jerusalem. How does their argument go?

The argument that the Khazars are the ancestors of many modern Jews, particularly Ashkenazi Jews, provides a fascinating historical perspective on Jewish ancestry and the attachment to the Holy Land. Proponents of this view trace the lineage of a significant portion of modern Jews to the Khazar Empire and its conversion to Judaism, which resulted in a lasting connection to Jerusalem and the land of Israel.

The Khazars were a powerful Turkic people who established an empire in modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus between the 7th and 10th centuries. In the 8th or 9th century, many Khazars converted to Judaism as a strategic move to position themselves between the Christian Byzantine Empire and Islamic Caliphates.

Many historians argue that the Khazar conversion to Judaism involved large segments of the population, not just the nobility. The Khazars eventually became a Jewish nation, practicing Jewish laws and customs. This made them a unique case of a Jewish state in Eastern Europe, far from traditional Jewish centers.

After the Khazar Empire fell in the 10th century, many Jewish Khazars migrated westward into Europe, settling in regions like Poland, Ukraine, and Hungary. They eventually became the ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jewish population in Eastern Europe.

The Khazar origin of many Ashkenazi Jews contributed to the growth of Jewish populations in Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. The migration of Khazars after their empire fell, along with their established Jewish identity, helped establish Jewish life in these areas. Some believe a significant portion of Ashkenazi Jews can trace their roots back to Khazar ancestry, as they integrated into the broader Jewish world and contributed to Jewish culture and practices.

The Khazar conversion to Judaism instilled in them the central tenets of the faith, including the importance of the Holy Land and Jerusalem. This connection was passed down through generations, leading to a special attachment among their descendants—modern Ashkenazi Jews—to Israel. The Khazar lineage reinforced a sense of Jewish identity that maintained a longing for the Holy Land even while living in diaspora.

The Khazar ancestry theory explains the strong connection between Ashkenazi Jews and Israel. It suggests that many Ashkenazi Jews are descended from the Khazars, who converted to Judaism centuries ago, creating a historical and religious bond with Jerusalem and Israel.

The Khazar theory enhances Jewish history by showing how different peoples have contributed to the Jewish diaspora while maintaining a shared religious and cultural heritage centered on the Holy Land. The Khazars played a key role in shaping Eastern European Jews, particularly Ashkenazi Jews, and their conversion to Judaism created a lasting connection to the Holy Land that still impacts Jewish identity.

Ibn Ezra (Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra) – Jewish Scholar

The 12th-century Jewish scholar Ibn Ezra also comments on Ezekiel’s prophecy of Gog and Magog. He suggests that the prophecy refers to a yet-unfulfilled event, emphasizing that it is mysterious.

	“This is a prophecy about a time that is yet to come, and we do not know who these people [Gog and Magog] are, for it is hidden from us.”
(Commentary on Ezekiel 38:2)

Ibn Ezra treats Gog and Magog as a mystery, underscoring that while the prophecy holds significance, its precise meaning and timing remain unclear.

What is the view of Shlomo Sand on the Jewish people?

Shlomo Sand is an Israeli historian and professor who has written several books challenging the conventional views on the Jewish people. According to Sand, the Jewish people are not a distinct ethnic group or a nation with a common origin, but rather a collection of diverse groups who converted to Judaism at different times and places. He argues that the idea of a Jewish people with a continuous lineage from ancient Israel is a modern invention, created by Zionism and supported by nationalist historiography.

Sand’s main arguments are:

There was no mass exile of Jews from the Land of Israel after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Most Jews stayed in their homeland and later converted to Christianity or Islam. The Jewish diaspora was formed mostly by voluntary migration and proselytism.

Judaism was a missionary religion that actively sought converts in the ancient world. Many groups of people adopted Judaism, such as the Edomites, the Itureans, the Nabateans, the Khazars, the Berbers, and the Himyarites. These converts became the ancestors of many Jewish communities around the world.

The modern Jews of Eastern Europe, or Ashkenazim, are mainly the descendants of Khazars, a Turkic people who ruled a large empire in the Caucasus and converted to Judaism in the 8th or 9th century CE. They migrated westward and mixed with local populations, adopting their languages and customs.

The modern Jews of Spain and Portugal, or Sephardim, are mainly the descendants of Berbers and Arabs who converted to Judaism in North Africa and later settled in the Iberian Peninsula. They also mixed with local populations and developed their own culture and language.

The modern Jews of Ethiopia, or Beta Israel, are not related to the ancient Israelites, but rather to local African tribes who converted to Judaism under the influence of Christian missionaries.

The modern Jews of Yemen, or Teimanim, are not related to the ancient Israelites either, but rather to Arabs who converted to Judaism in South Arabia under the influence of Jewish traders and refugees from Roman persecution.

Sand’s books have been widely criticized by other historians and scholars for being based on selective use of sources, flawed methodology, ideological bias, and historical inaccuracies. Some critics have accused him of distorting Jewish history and identity for political purposes, and of denying the Jewish people’s right to self-determination and their connection to their ancestral homeland.

“The past was not a single narrative but a complex mix of events and developments, shaped and reshaped by human imagination and mythmaking.”

— Shlomo Sand, “The Invention of the Jewish People”

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In the Quran Surah 3, verse 67, Allah says to the people of the scripture:

”Abraham was not a Jew nor a Christian but he was an upright man, a Muslim, and he was not one of the polytheists.“

Also, in Surah 2, verse 124, Allah says:

”And when his Lord tested Abraham with certain words, and he fulfilled them. Allah said, ‘Behold, I make you a leader for the people.’ Said Abraham, ‘And of my seed?’ Allah said ‘My covenant shall not reach the evildoers.’

Was Abraham considered to be Jewish in the context of Judaism?

Yes, in the context of Judaism, Abraham is considered to be the first Jew. He is recognized as the founding patriarch of the Israelites, from whom the Jewish people trace their ancestry. His covenant with God (the Abrahamic Covenant) is viewed as a central event in Jewish history.

This covenant included the promise that Abraham would become the father of a great nation, later understood to be Israel. The details of this covenant, including circumcision and the belief in one God (monotheism), are fundamental principles in Jewish faith and practice.

In light of the fact that the word “Jew” is derived from the word “Judah”, who was Abraham’s great-grandson, how could Abraham have been the first Jew?

Abraham is considered the first Jew because he is recognized as the founding patriarch of the Israelite people, who later became known as the Jews.

While the name “Jew” may be derived from “Judah”, one of Abraham’s great-grandsons, it is Abraham who is credited with making a covenant with God and following his commands, which set the foundation for the Jewish faith and people. Therefore, Abraham is often referred to as the first Jew due to his pivotal role in the establishment of the Jewish religion and identity.

Were Adam, Enoch, and Noah regarded as Jewish within the realm of Judaism?

In Judaism, Adam, Enoch, and Noah are considered righteous men and prophets, but they are not identified as Jewish in the way Abraham and his descendants are. This is because Judaism as an organized religion, began with God’s covenant with Abraham. Therefore, figures like Adam, Enoch, and Noah, who appear in the Bible before Abraham, are considered pre-Jewish or existing before the establishment of Judaism.

Abraham and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem

Why was the Jewish temple so vital to be attached to the person of Abraham?

The Jewish temple was so vital to be attached to the person of Abraham because Abraham was the founder of Judaism and the first person to make a covenant with God. The covenant was a promise that God made to Abraham and his descendants, that they would be God’s chosen people and inherit the land of Canaan, also known as the Promised Land.
The temple was the place where the Jews worshipped God and offered sacrifices, as well as the symbol of their connection to God and the Promised Land. The temple was also believed to be the dwelling place of God’s presence on earth, also known as the Shekhinah. Therefore, the temple was a vital link between Abraham, the father of Judaism, and God, the creator and protector of Judaism.

Did Abraham know that the temple would be built on the site where he almost sacrificed his son?

There is no definitive answer to whether Abraham knew that the temple would be built on the site where he almost sacrificed his son. Different traditions and interpretations have different views on this question. Here are some possible perspectives:

According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was aware of the future significance of Mount Moriah, as he named it “the Lord will provide” (Genesis 22 verse 14), implying that God would provide a place for His presence and worship there. Some Jewish sources also suggest that Abraham saw a vision of the future temple when he ascended the mountain with Isaac.

According to Christian tradition, Abraham did not know the exact location of the future temple, but he had faith that God would fulfill His promises to him and his descendants. Some Christian sources also see Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac as a foreshadowing of God’s sacrifice of His Son, Jesus Christ, on the cross.

According to Islamic tradition, Abraham did not sacrifice Isaac, but Ishmael, his firstborn son by Hagar. Muslims believe that Abraham and Ishmael built the Kaaba, the house of God, in Mecca, which is the holiest site in Islam. Muslims do not consider the Temple Mount in Jerusalem as the place where Abraham offered his son, but rather as the place where Muhammad ascended to heaven during his night journey.

Abraham: The Father of Monotheism and Paragon of Virtue in Jewish Thought

Jewish sages throughout history have frequently cited Abraham as a central figure and role model. They highlighted various aspects of his character, actions, and faith to impart important lessons in Jewish thought and practice. Below are a few examples from notable Jewish sages and classical texts that discuss Abraham’s significance:

1. Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers)

The sages in Pirkei Avot emphasize Abraham’s virtues, contrasting his qualities with those of Balaam, a prophet known for negative traits.

“Whoever possesses these three qualities is of the disciples of our father Abraham, and whoever possesses the opposite three qualities is of the disciples of the wicked Balaam: A good eye, a humble spirit, and a moderate appetite are the traits of the disciples of our father Abraham…”

(Pirkei Avot 5:19)

This teaching underscores Abraham’s generosity, humility, and self-restraint, establishing him as a model of ethical behavior.

2. Midrash Tanchuma

The Midrash Tanchuma provides stories and commentary on Abraham’s faith and his rejection of idolatry. It describes how he came to believe in one God independently and how he influenced others.

“Abraham recognized his Creator when he was three years old… He said, ‘It is impossible that this world should have no guide,’ and he began to seek after God.”

(Midrash Tanchuma, Lech Lecha 2)

This midrash shows Abraham as a seeker of truth who rejected the idolatry around him, becoming a model of discovery and monotheism.

3. Bereshit Rabbah (Genesis Rabbah)

The Midrash Bereshit Rabbah elaborates on Abraham’s hospitality and kindness, particularly the famous scene in Genesis 18 where he welcomes strangers.

“Rabbi Yochanan said: Greater is hospitality than receiving the Divine Presence, for it is written: ‘And he [Abraham] saw three men and ran to greet them’ (Genesis 18:2) even though he was conversing with God.”

(Bereshit Rabbah 48:9)

This commentary highlights Abraham’s dedication to hospitality, even above his personal spiritual experience, presenting him as an example of placing the needs of others first.

4. Maimonides (Rambam)

Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon), in his work Mishneh Torah, discusses Abraham’s role in spreading monotheism, portraying him as the first person to teach and bring others to the worship of one God.

“Abraham began to stand and call in a loud voice to all the people, and he informed them that there is one God for the entire world… he taught the people, and he showed them the proper path. As a result, thousands gathered around him.”

(Mishneh Torah, Laws of Idolatry 1:3)

Maimonides sees Abraham as a spiritual teacher who laid the groundwork for monotheism and the Jewish faith.

5. Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai in the Zohar

The Zohar, a foundational work of Jewish mysticism traditionally attributed to Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, describes Abraham as the archetype of Chesed (loving-kindness). In Kabbalistic thought, Abraham embodies this divine attribute in the way he lived and interacted with others.

“Abraham personified kindness and love. He spread God’s love to the world and showed people the way to kindness, becoming a reflection of the divine attribute of Chesed.”

(Zohar, Lech Lecha 1:82a)

The Zohar portrays Abraham not only as a historical figure but as a channel for divine attributes, making his life an embodiment of Chesed.

6. Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi in the Kuzari

In The Kuzari, Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi presents Abraham as the prototype of faith through reason and revelation. He describes Abraham’s path to monotheism and his role as the father of the Jewish nation.

“Abraham, in his search for truth, rejected the worship of stars, the elements, and idols… he desired to reach the One behind it all and was rewarded with divine revelation and the promise that he would become a great nation.”

(Kuzari, Part I, 95)

Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi views Abraham as a model of someone who, through intellectual and spiritual inquiry, arrives at a true relationship with God.

7. Rabbi Nachman of Breslov

Rabbi Nachman, a Chassidic master, saw Abraham as the ideal model of faith and commitment. He taught that Abraham’s unwavering trust in God, even during the Akeidah (binding of Isaac), serves as an example of pure faith (emunah).

“Abraham is our example of true faith—emunah shelemah. Even when commanded to sacrifice Isaac, he trusted completely. Faith like Abraham’s is what we must strive for.”

(Likutei Moharan, Torah 32)

Rabbi Nachman emphasizes Abraham’s deep faith as a spiritual goal for others to emulate.

8. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch

Rabbi Hirsch, in his commentary on the Torah, focuses on Abraham as a model of ethical monotheism, showing that Abraham’s life represents the union of faith and moral action.

“Abraham… brought to humanity the insight that belief in God necessitates ethical action and love for others. He taught that a relationship with God requires justice and kindness.”

(Commentary on Genesis 18:19)

Rabbi Hirsch sees Abraham’s faith as inherently ethical, showing that belief in God must lead to compassion and righteousness.

Conclusion

Jewish sages regard Abraham as the father of monotheism, the paragon of faith, and the epitome of kindness and justice. His journey of discovering God, spreading monotheism, and practicing righteousness and hospitality is consistently highlighted. These sages see Abraham’s life as an enduring source of lessons on faith, morality, and devotion to God and humanity.

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Did Moses and Abraham know that the temple would be built in Jerusalem?

The Bible does not explicitly state that Moses and Abraham knew about the future construction of the Temple in Jerusalem. However, both figures are significant in the Jewish tradition regarding the covenant with God and the eventual establishment of a central place of worship.

1. Abraham: He is often associated with the land of Canaan, which includes Jerusalem. The biblical narrative highlights that he established altars and worshiped God in various locations, symbolizing a connection to the land that would later become significant in Jewish history.

2. Moses: He led the Israelites out of Egypt and received the Law at Mount Sinai. His connection to the Tabernacle, a mobile sanctuary, is significant, as it laid the groundwork for central worship in the future. The establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem is often viewed as a fulfillment of the promise of a permanent dwelling place for God, but there is no direct indication that Moses was aware of the future Temple.

In Jewish tradition, the idea of a Temple in Jerusalem is connected to prophecies and promises made later in the biblical narrative, particularly during the time of King David and Solomon. Therefore, while Moses and Abraham played crucial roles in the religious history of the Israelites, there is no definitive evidence that Moses and Abraham had knowledge of the Temple’s future construction.

“Abraham recognized his Creator when he was three years old… He said, ‘It is impossible that this world should have no guide,’ and he began to seek after God.”

(Midrash Tanchuma, Lech Lecha 2)

This midrash shows Abraham as a seeker of truth who rejected the idolatry around him, becoming a model of discovery and monotheism.

How is Abraham linked to the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca in Islam?

In Islam, Abraham is deeply connected to the Kaaba in Mecca, which is regarded as the House of God. According to Islamic tradition:

1. Construction of the Kaaba: It is believed that Abraham, along with his son Ishmael, was instructed by God to build the Kaaba as a place of worship. The Kaaba is considered the first house of worship dedicated to the monotheistic belief in one God.

2. Covenant and Submission: Abraham is viewed as a key figure in Islam for his unwavering submission to God’s will and his role as a prophet. His dedication to monotheism is foundational to Islamic beliefs.

3. Pilgrimage (Hajj): The Kaaba is the focal point of the Hajj pilgrimage, one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Muslims from around the world perform rituals around the Kaaba, commemorating the actions of Abraham and Ishmael.

4. Significance of the Black Stone: The Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad), set into the corner of the Kaaba, is said to have been given to Abraham by the angel Gabriel. It is revered by Muslims as a sacred object.

Overall, Abraham’s legacy as a prophet and the father of monotheism links him to the Kaaba (House of God), reinforcing the importance of the site in Islamic faith and practice.

Understanding Abraham’s Role in Judaism and the Context of Pre-Jewish Figures

In the Quran Surah 3, verse 67, Allah says to the people of the scripture:

”Abraham was not a Jew nor a Christian but he was an upright man, a Muslim, and he was not one of the polytheists.“

Also, in Surah 2, verse 124, Allah says:

”And when his Lord tested Abraham with certain words, and he fulfilled them. Allah said, ‘Behold, I make you a leader for the people.’ Said Abraham, ‘And of my seed?’ Allah said ‘My covenant shall not reach the evildoers.“

Was Abraham considered to be Jewish in the context of Judaism?

Yes, in the context of Judaism, Abraham is considered to be the first Jew. He is recognized as the founding patriarch of the Israelites, from whom the Jewish people trace their ancestry. His covenant with God (the Abrahamic Covenant) is viewed as a central event in Jewish history.

This covenant included the promise that Abraham would become the father of a great nation, later understood to be Israel. The details of this covenant, including circumcision and the belief in one God (monotheism), are fundamental principles in Jewish faith and practice.

In light of the fact that the word “Jew” is derived from the word “Judah”, who was Abraham’s great-grandson, how could Abraham have been the first Jew?

Abraham is considered the first Jew because he is recognized as the founding patriarch of the Israelite people, who later became known as the Jews.

While the name “Jew” may be derived from “Judah”, one of Abraham’s great-grandsons, it is Abraham who is credited with making a covenant with God and following his commands, which set the foundation for the Jewish faith and people. Therefore, Abraham is often referred to as the first Jew due to his pivotal role in the establishment of the Jewish religion and identity.

Were Adam, Enoch, and Noah regarded as Jewish within the realm of Judaism?

In Judaism, Adam, Enoch, and Noah are considered righteous men and prophets, but they are not identified as Jewish in the way Abraham and his descendants are. This is because Judaism as an organized religion, began with God’s covenant with Abraham.

Therefore, figures like Adam, Enoch, and Noah, who appear in the Bible before Abraham, are considered pre-Jewish or existing before the establishment of Judaism.

The right of Ishmael as being the firstborn of Abraham

Genesis 16, verse 3, is a verse from the Bible that describes a key event involving Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar. In this verse, Sarai (later known as Sarah), the wife of Abram (later known as Abraham), gives her Egyptian maidservant Hagar to Abraham as a wife to bear children, as Sarah had not been able to conceive.

This action marks a significant moment in the narrative, as it leads to complex family dynamics and consequences in the story of Abraham and his descendants.

Genesis 16, verse 3, reads:

”And Sarai Abram’s wife took Hagar her maid the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to her husband Abram to be his wife.“

Deuteronomy 21, verses 15 to 17, is a passage from the Old Testament of the Bible that addresses the rights of a man concerning his sons, particularly in the context of inheritance. The verses outline conditions for a man who has two wives, one he loves and one he does not. The law states that when dividing his inheritance among his sons, he must not favor the son of the loved wife over the son of the unloved wife. Instead, he should acknowledge the firstborn son, regardless of the mother’s status. This passage emphasizes fairness and the importance of honoring the firstborn in matters of inheritance.

Deuteronomy 21, verses 15 to 17, reads:

”If a man have two wives, one beloved, and another hated, and they have born him children, both the beloved and the hated; and if the firstborn son be hers that was hated:

Then it shall be, when he maketh his sons to inherit that which he hath, that he may not make the son of the beloved firstborn before the son of the hated, which is indeed the firstborn:

But he shall acknowledge the son of the hated for the firstborn, by giving him a double portion of all that he hath: for he is the beginning of his strength; the right of the firstborn is his.

The belief that the Abrahamic covenant was fulfilled through Ishmael rather than Isaac, including the promise of land from the Nile to the Euphrates and the blessing to all nations through Abraham’s seed, is held by some, particularly within Islamic tradition. Here’s a more detailed articulation of their argument:

Ishmael and the Covenant.

1. Ishmael as the Firstborn: Supporters of this view argue that Ishmael, being Abraham’s firstborn son, was the original heir to the covenant. They emphasize that Ishmael was the first child of Abraham, born to Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian maidservant.
2. Sacrifice Narrative: They contend that the narrative of Abraham being asked to sacrifice his son originally referred to Ishmael, not Isaac. This is based on the belief that ancient scriptures were altered by Israelite scribes to emphasize Isaac’s role.
3. Blessing and Land Promise: The promise of land from the Nile to the Euphrates and the blessing to all nations is seen as applying to Ishmael’s descendants. Islamic tradition views Ishmael as an ancestor of the Arab peoples, and thus sees the fulfillment of these promises through the Islamic Hajj and in the rise of Islamic civilization.

Scriptural Alteration Argument.

1. Scribal Changes: They argue that ancient Israelite scribes altered the scriptures to shift the focus from Ishmael to Isaac. This was done to establish a theological foundation for the Israelites’ claim to the land and their unique covenantal relationship with God.
2. Evidence from Quranic Texts: The Quran refers to the story of Abraham and his son, implying that Ishmael was the one to be sacrificed. This, combined with historical accounts and interpretations, is used to argue for the primacy of Ishmael in the covenantal promises.

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What was the rationale behind the prophet’s decision to present his firstborn instead of his other sons, as detailed in the Bible (Micah 6, verse 7)?

The verse reads:

“Shall I give my firstborn for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul?”.

The rationale behind the prophet’s decision to present his firstborn instead of his other sons in Micah 6, verse 7 is likely based on the cultural and religious significance of the firstborn in ancient Israelite society.

In many ancient cultures, including Israelite culture, the firstborn held a special status and had certain privileges and responsibilities. This included being the primary heir to the family’s inheritance and having a special connection to the divine.

By offering his firstborn, the prophet may have been trying to convey the seriousness and gravity of the situation. This action would have been a powerful symbol of sacrifice and devotion, as the firstborn was typically seen as the most valuable and cherished among the children.

It could also be seen as a way of emphasizing the depth of the prophet’s regret and repentance for his transgressions, as offering one’s firstborn would have been an unimaginable and incredibly difficult act for any parent.

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